What exactly is "Family"? Is it just a word used to label people who are blood-related? Dianne in the beginning believes so. but throughout the exploration of different kinds of experiences Dianne has a very different meaning to the word "Family". Read and Find out. What exactly is the definition of... Family?

This is a story I wrote for someone's Original Character

The Prism Collective has long fallen, but in its place rising from the embers centuries later was their last effort. a machine so advanced, to one day rebuild what was lost.  However the three races of the universe will seek destruction of the machines should they discover the last of their race is still alive.

Will the last machine succeed and build armies under the three noses of the races or fall just like others had under their unshakable foundations? 

_______________

Hey folks, I'm not so good at making the summaries of this, but in other words an advanced machine has the challenge to rebuild what's lost and not be discovered by the vast armies under the three races. this is like Skynet in space, slightly tweaked, of course their not the same, but their certainly looking like it.

The Prism Collective has long fallen, but in its place rising from the embers centuries later was their last effort. a machine so advanced, to one day rebuild what was lost.  However the three races of the universe will seek destruction of the machines should they discover the last of their race is still alive.

Will the last machine succeed and build armies under the three noses of the races or fall just like others had under their unshakable foundations? 

_______________

Hey folks, I'm not so good at making the summaries of this, but in other words an advanced machine has the challenge to rebuild what's lost and not be discovered by the vast armies under the three races. this is like Skynet in space, slightly tweaked, of course their not the same, but their certainly looking like it.

Also tags are wonky on phone, so some may follow a slight deviation, but i assure you that's as close as i could get. On phone they don't allow you to make your own apparently..

Linel Silvercrest is a boy who grew up in a rich family.

He has everything that he ever wanted.

Toys, clothes, gadgets, you name it.

One day, on his first day of his new school...

He got bullied by a bunch of punks.

Since Linel has everything from birth, he also
has an ability called atomic synthesis.

Atomic synthesis is a power to manipulate atoms through brainwaves.

He use that power against them and beats them
up badly.

Because of that, he got expelled from his new school.
His father got furious and sends him to his grand father's 
school which is a military academy called  
Silver Wing Academy.

Join Linel in his adventures or misadventures in this 
crazy military school were students has too much 
freedom.

Jiang Siming suddenly discovered that the PUBG he was playing was different from others.

He can find fragments of different colors in the game, and after synthesis, they can be transformed into abilities, attributes, talents, money, antiques, even drugs, exercises, etc.

Constantly relying on in-game coin collecting, Jiang Siming completed a lifetime counterattack and made his fortune!

Jiang Siming suddenly discovered that the PUBG he was playing was different from others.

He can find fragments of different colors in the game, and after synthesis, they can be transformed into abilities, attributes, talents, money, antiques, even drugs, exercises, etc.

Constantly relying on in-game coin collecting, Jiang Siming completed a lifetime counterattack and made his fortune!

Author's Note: I'm just translating a novel that I found. This novel is not mine. If the author of this novel wants me to delete it, let me know.

Abstract

Genetic code refers to the assignment of the codons to the amino acids, thus being the cornerstone template underling the translation process. Genetic code is largely invariant throughout all extant organisms; hence, it is often referred to as the "universal" or "canonical" genetic code. However, a number of extant deviations exist, in both nuclear and organelle (notably, mitochondrial) genomes. These are known as "deviant" or "non-canonical" codes. The emergence of the non-canonical codes posits a number of intriguing questions in regard to the origins and evolution of the universal genetic code and, importantly, has practical implications as certain human mitochondrial diseases have been shown to be linked to the mitochondrial code deviations and translational errors. On a fundamental level, universality (and presumed optimality) of the genetic code is a principal notion underlying its origins, evolution and functionality.

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Translation

A. Liljas, in Encyclopedia of Genetics, 2001

Genetic Code

The genetic code is the universal dictionary by which genetic information is translated into the functional machinery of living organisms, the proteins. The words or 'codons' of the genetic message are three nucleotides long. Since there are four different nucleotides used in messenger RNA (mRNA), this results in a dictionary of 64 words. There are 20 amino acids that are normally used in proteins and which are translated. In addition the translation needs a definition of 'start' and 'stop.' The start codon defines the start of translation as well as the reading frame (the sequence of nucleotide triplets) that is to be translated. The start or initiator codon is identical to the methionine codon. Special mechanisms are used to identify the correct initiation site; in addition there are three stop codons. Thus 61 codons are available for 20 amino acids, and hence the genetic code is degenerate. In the case of leucine, serine, and arginine, there are as many as six codons, whereas methionine and tryptophan have only one codon.

The universal genetic code deviates slightly in mitochondria, where a few codons are translated in alternative ways. The most prevalent are methionine and tryptophan, which have two codons instead of the usual one. Different organisms use the degenerate genetic code differently. The usage of the codons is coupled to the availability to tRNAs that can translate them. Thus the codon usage can differ to the extent that a gene that is transferred from one organism to another cannot be translated unless the new organism is supplemented with extra tRNAs.

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Peptide, Protein and Enzyme Design

C. Hu, J. Wang, in Methods in Enzymology, 2016

4 Synthetic Chemistry-Guided Unnatural Amino Acid Design

Genetic code expansion enables the usage of unnatural chemical groups, which are widely used in organic chemistry but is rare in organisms. At least three advantages can be achieved by doing that. First, the protein scaffold provides a secondary coordination sphere for the organic catalyst, which may enhance their performance, including turnover numbers and enantioselectivity (Durrenberger & Ward, 2014). Second, the structure containing unnatural organic amino acid is genetically encoded. As a consequence, its self-assembly can be easily amplified or improved by directed evolution. Finally, adding unnatural organic molecules enables researchers to solve biological chemistry problems by organic chemical methods, which may be helpful in green chemistry and synthetic biology.

Some unnatural amino acids were inspired by organic chemistry studies. Thus, some unnatural organic molecules and powerful and highly developed synthetic chemistry methods can be introduced to molecular biology (Mann, 1989). In order to be properly incorporated, those organic molecules are required to be converted into an unnatural amino acid first. Based on their structure features, they can be converted into either a "tyrosine" or a "lysine". For instance, if the molecule contained an aromatic ring, it would be suitable for mimicking tyrosine. The tyrosine type unnatural amino acid often contains an aromatic ring that bears the unnatural chemical groups, and a covalently linked aliphatic amino acid part (usually alanine) as the amino acid back bone. On the other hand, a lysine host is more suitable for flexible aliphatic chemical groups. The lysine mimic is usually composed of the unnatural aliphatic chemical groups and a lysine molecule. Usually they are covalently connected by an amide bond or carbamate.

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Amino Acids, Peptides, Porphyrins, and Alkaloids

Dolph L. Hatfield, ... Byeong jae Lee, in Comprehensive Natural Products Chemistry, 1999

4.14.4 Universality of UGA as a Codon for Sec

The genetic code was previously thought to be used in the same way by all organisms and therefore was considered to be universal. However, it is now known that many changes have occurred in the genetic code during evolution65,66 and thus, it has been described as the "almost universal genetic code".73 In the present discussion of the assignment of Sec to the universal genetic code, the code will be referred to as the almost universal genetic code.73

Sec tRNAs that decode UGA in protein synthesis are widespread in nature.5,6,8 Initially, a Sec-tRNA that decodes UGA in protein synthesis was identified intracellularly in E. coli21 and in mammals.23 These studies clearly established the existence of selenocysteyl-tRNA[Ser]Sec and provided strong evidence that the Sec moiety in selenoproteins must arise by direct incorporation of Sec and not by posttranslational modification. The gene encoding Sec tRNA[Ser]Sec was subsequently found to be ubiquitous in the subkingdom Eubacteria74 and tRNA[Ser]Sec or its gene was found to be ubiquitous in the animal kingdom.75 Sec-tRNAs that decode UGA were also found in two very diverse protists, Tetrahymena borealis and Thalassiosira pseudoonana,76 in a higher plant, Beta vulgaris, and in a filamentous fungus, Gliocladium virens.77 Several potential Sec-containing protein genes (i.e., genes that contained TGA in an open reading frame) and a Sec tRNA gene were found in the genome sequence of the archaeon, Methanococcus jannaschii.78 Each of these studies shows that UGA as a codon for Sec occurs in representative organisms from all five life kingdoms, Monera (with its two subkingdoms, Eubacteria and Archaebacteria), Protists, Plants, Animals, and Fungi (see Figure 3 for the delineation of organisms into five life kingdoms).79 Therefore, Sec should be assigned to UGA in the almost universal genetic code5 as shown in Figure 4.

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Figure 3. Evolutionary tree showing the distribution of Sec in nature.

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Figure 4. The almost universal genetic code showing the inclusion of Sec as the 21st amino acid.

In addition to UGA, AUG also has a dual function in the almost universal genetic code (see Figure 4).67,69 AUG serves both as a codon that initiates protein synthesis and a codon for methionine at internal positions of protein. The dual role of AUG has been known since the code was first deciphered67,68 and thus it is not surprising that a second codon, UGA, also has a dual function. Furthermore, the fact that two codons have now been identified in the almost universal genetic code with multiple functions raises the possibility that other codewords may also exist with multiple roles.

The genome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been sequenced.80 This organism does not appear to encode a Sec tRNA[Ser]Sec gene or any potential selenoprotein genes.8 A S. cerevisiae homologue of the glutathione peroxidase gene in mammals was found to contain a cysteine codon (TGT) at the position where the mammalian gene encodes Sec (codon TGA). Thus, this organism appears to lack the biosynthetic pathways for specific site incorporation of Sec into protein found in other life forms.8 This observation reflects genetic diversity and should not affect our proposal that Sec belongs in the almost universal genetic code. Other yeast forms, such as Candida albicans, are known to encode variations in the almost universal genetic code in their genomes.65,66,81

The fact that S. cerevisiae does not appear to have the system for incorporating Sec into specific sites of protein demonstrates that this means of utilizing selenium is not essential to life. Furthermore, E. coli mutants lacking the ability to incorporate Sec into specific sites of protein can grow normally under certain conditions.82 Do these findings imply that the incorporation of Sec into specific sites of protein is not important in nature? In mammalian systems, the synthesis of specific selenoproteins is essential to sustain life as removal of the Sec tRNA[Ser]Sec gene from the mouse genome by gene replacement or "gene knockout" is embryonically lethal.83 In E. coli, the selenoprotein, formate dehydrogenase, is required to detoxify formate under aerobic growth conditions.82 The ability to incorporate Sec into specific selenoproteins is, therefore, not essential to sustain life in E. coli, but provides these organisms with a selective advantage. Thus, the ability to synthesize specific selenoproteins is essential to some life forms, while it appears to provide only a selective advantage to others. In addition, since this process is widespread in nature, it must then be important as a requirement and/or as a selective advantage to virtually all organisms.

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Codon Usage and Translational Selection

R. Hershberg, in Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology, 2016

Abstract

The genetic code is redundant, meaning that most amino acids are encoded by more than one codon. Codons encoding the same amino acid are referred to as synonymous codons. Different synonymous codons are not used equally within the protein-coding sequences of a genome. Rather, a phenomenon of codon bias, by which certain synonymous codons are consistently over represented relative to others, is ubiquitous across living organisms. In this article we discuss the neutral and selective causes of codon bias, focusing on translation optimization considerations as a major source of selection on codon usage.

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Translation

A. Liljas, in Brenner's Encyclopedia of Genetics (Second Edition), 2013

The Genetic Code

The genetic code is the universal dictionary by which the genetic information is translated into the functional machinery of living organisms, the proteins. The words or the codons of the genetic message are three nucleotides long. Since there are four different nucleotides (A, C, G, U) used in the messenger RNA (mRNA), this leads to a dictionary of 64 words. Translation needs a definition of start and stop. The start codon at the same time defines the reading frame of the sequence of nucleotide triplets that are to be translated. The start or initiator codon is identical to the methionine codon. Special mechanisms are used to identify the correct initiation site. In addition, there are three stop codons. Thus 61 codons are available for 20 amino acids that are normally translated and used in proteins. Thus the genetic code is degenerate. In the case of leucine, serine, and arginine, there are as many as six codons, whereas methionine and tryptophan have only one codon each.

The codon usage is coupled to the availability of tRNAs that can translate them. The codon usage can differ to the extent that if a gene is transferred from one organism to another, it may not be possible to translate unless the gene is altered to match the codon usage of the recipient organism.

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Messenger RNA

A. Liljas, in Brenner's Encyclopedia of Genetics (Second Edition), 2013

The Genetic Code

The genetic code is the universal dictionary by which the genetic information is translated into the functional machinery of living organisms, the proteins. The words or the codons of the genetic message are three nucleotides long. Since there are four different nucleotides used in the messenger RNA (mRNA; A, C, G, and U), this leads to a dictionary of 64 code words. A total of 20 amino acids is normally used in proteins, but translation also needs a definition of a start and a stop of the message. The start codon, AUG, defines the reading frame of the sequence of nucleotide triplets that will be translated. However, the start or initiator codon is identical to the methionine codon. Special mechanisms are used to identify the correct initiation site. With the three stop codons – UAA, UAG, and UGA – there are 61 codons available for the 20 amino acids. Therefore, the genetic code is degenerate. There are as many as six codons corresponding to leucine, serine, and arginine, whereas methionine and tryptophane have only one codon each.

The codon usage is coupled to the availability of tRNAs that can translate them. The codon usage can differ to the extent that if a gene is transferred from one organism to another, it may not be possible to translate unless the gene is altered to match the codon usage of the recipient organism.

1
What are three common features of plant and animal cells (eukaryotes)?
1) Cell membrane; 2) Cytoplasm; 3) Genetic material in a nucleus.
2
Which are bigger; bacterial cells (prokaryotes) or eukaryotes?
Eukaryotes.
3
True or false? "Prokaryotic cells have a cell wall."
True.
4
True or false? "Prokaryotic cells have a nucleus."
False.
5
In what form is the genetic material in a prokaryotic cell?
A single DNA loop.
6
Name five common parts of animal and plant cells.
Nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria, ribosomes
7
Name two further features of a plant cell.
Chloroplasts, permanent vacuole (filled with cell sap).  
8
Describe the function of the nucleus.
Contains the genetic material of the cell.
9
Describe the function of the cytoplasm.
The location of cellular reactions.
10
Describe the function of the cell membrane.
To determine what is allowed into and out of the cell.
11
Describe the function of the mitochondria.
Where aerobic respiration occurs to release energy.
12
Describe the function of the ribosomes.
To bond amino acids together to form proteins (protein synthesis).
13
Describe the function of the chloroplasts.
The location of photosynthesis.
14
Describe the function of the permanent vacuole.
A storage area for ions and water, sometimes pigments.
15
Which strong material is the cell wall of plant and algal cells made from?
Cellulose.
16
What is the definition of a cell?
The individual unit of an organism.
17
What is the definition of a tissue?
Cells of the same type working together to perform a specific function.
18
What is the definition of an organ?
A structure made from multiple tissue types to perform a specific function.
19
What is the definition of an organ system?
Multiple organs working together to perform a specific function.
20
Describe a specialisation of a sperm cell.
Mobile due to flagellum; many mitochondria to allow high energy release for movement; streamlined head; digestive enzymes in head to break down egg membrane.
21
Describe a specialisation of a nerve cell.
Many mitochondria to provide lots of energy for active transport; many proteins embedded in cell membrane to allow ion movement.
22
Describe a specialisation of a muscle cell.
Many mitochondria to provide lots of energy for contraction; many ribosomes to synthesise proteins.
23
Describe a specialisation of a root hair cell.
Elongated shape to increase surface area for ion absorption; many mitochondria to provide lots of energy for active transport.
24
Describe a specialisation of a xylem cell.
Little cell contents to allow easy movement of water and ions through each cell.
25
Describe a specialisation of a phloem cell.
Needs a companion cell to work optimally.
2 / 4
26
What is "cell differentiation"?
The process of a stem cell dividing and becoming a specialised cell.
27
When do most animal cells differentiate?
At an early stage of development.
28
What is different about plant cells' differentiation?
They retain the ability to differentiate throughout life (e.g. a stem developing roots when planted in soil)
29
In mature animals, what is cell differentiation used for?
Repair and replacement of old/damaged cells.
30
What are the two advantages of electron microscopes over light microscopes?
1. Increased magnification, 2. Increased resolution.
31
What is the "resolution" or "resolving power" of a microscope?
The ability to determine two close objects as separate images.
32
What are the three forms of equation used to calculate magnification (M), the image size (I) or the actual size of an object (A)?
1. A=I/M, 2. I=A x M, 3. M=I/A
33
What is 1340000 nm expressed in standard form?
1.34 x 106 nm
34
What is 0.0000001 µm expressed in standard form?
1 x 10-7 µm
35
What is the difference between mm, µm and nm?
A factor of 1000.
36
By what process do bacterial cells divide?
Binary fission.
37
If provided with enough nutrients and a suitable temperature, how often can bacterial cells divide?
Around every 20 minutes.
38
Describe the two ways bacteria can be grown in a laboratory.
1. In a nutrient broth solution, 2. On an agar gel plate/petri dish.
39
What is a "contaminant"?
An unwanted species of microorganism growing in your culture.
40
What should you do with Petri dishes and culture media before use?
Sterilise it at high temperature to kill contaminants.
41
How do you sterilise inoculating loops?
Pass them through a Bunsen burner flame before use.
42
How should a Petri dish be stored in school?
Upside down, with tape securing the lid.
43
What is the maximum temperature cultures should be incubated at in schools or colleges?
25°C
44
Explain why the maximum incubation temperature for bacterial cultures in schools is 25⁰C.
To avoid growing potential pathogens.
45
If you were asked to calculate the cross-sectional area of a circular clear area around a disinfectant, what equation would you use?
pr2
46
What is a chromosome?
A coiled thread-like structure of nucleic acids (DNA) and protein found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
47
What are genes?
Sections of DNA that contain the code for a particular protein.
48
In what arrangement are chromosomes found normally?
Pairs.
49
How many chromosomes does a human have?
23 pairs OR 46 in total.
3 / 4
50
What has to happen within the cell before it can divide? (2 steps)
1. Cell organelles (e.g. mitochondria and ribosomes) have to replicate, 2. DNA has to be replicated (copied).
51
How many chromosomes will be present in a cell after DNA replication?
92 OR 46 pairs.
52
To where do the chromosomes moves to during mitosis?
To opposite ends of the cell.
53
What occurs during cytokinesis?
The cytoplasm and cell membranes divide.
54
Mitosis is critical for….
…growth, replacement and development of an organism.
55
What is a stem cell?
An undifferentiated cell capable of giving rise to many more cells of the same type.
56
Describe the function of stem cells in embryos.
To develop into multiple cell types aiding in the development of the embryo into a mature organism.
57
Describe the function of stem cells in adult animals.
To be the source of cells used in growth and repair of the mature animal.
58
Describe the function of stem cells in plant meristems.
To allow a plant to keep growing throughout its life (animals stop growing when mature) by specialising into any type of cell.
59
What is a potential use of stem cells in medicine?
To treat conditions where cells have been damaged e.g. diabetes, paralysis.
60
What is the principle of therapeutic cloning?
An embryo is produced with the same genes as the patient.
61
Give an advantage of therapeutic cloning.
No rejection of the new cells by the patient (as they are the patitent's own cells).
62
Give two potential problems with therapeutic cloning.
1. Risk of viral infection, 2. Religious/ethical objections around the use of embryos.
63
How are plant stem cells used in horticulture (commercial plant growing)?
To create plant cuttings (clones of the original plant).
64
Give two advantages of the use of clones in horticulture.
1. Rare species can be cloned to prevent extinction, 2. Crops with special adaptations (e.g. disease resistance) can be identically produced in large numbers.
65
Name the process whereby substances move in and out of a cell across the cell membrane.
Diffusion.
66
Define "diffusion".
The net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration down a concentration gradient across a semi-permeable membrane.
67
Name three substances which move by diffusion within animal cells.
1. Oxygen and 2. carbon dioxide in gas exchange, 3. Urea out of cells to be excreted from the body.
68
Name three factors which affect the rate of diffusion.
1. The difference in concentrations (concentration gradient); 2. Temperature; 3. Surface area of the membrane.
69
Does a single-celled organism have a high or low surface area:volume ratio?
High.
70
How do single-celled organisms get enough oxygen without having lungs?
Due to its small size, and therefore its high SA:vol, diffusion across its membrane allows sufficient gas exchange
4 / 4
71
An organism has a surface area of 50m2 and a volume of 20m3. What is its surface area to volume ratio?
2.5:1
72
Why do multicellular organisms tend to need exchange surfaces and transport systems?
Low SA:vol, therefore cannot rely on diffusion across cell membranes.
73
Name two common features that aid the exchange of substances in animal small intestine & lungs; fish gills; plant roots and leaves.
1. Large surface area, 2. Thin membrane to provide a short diffusion path.
74
Name two further features that aid the exchange of substances in animals but NOT plants.
1. An efficient blood supply, 2. The ability to ventilate (to allow air to move in and out of the organism).
75
Define osmosis.
The diffusion of water from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane.
76
If an animal cell loses a lot of water, what happens?
It crenates (shrivels) and cellular reactions are slowed or stopped.
77
If an animal cell gains a lot of water, what happens?
It can lyse (burst) and die.
78
If a plant cell loses a lot of water, what happens?
It becomes plasmolysed (cell membrane shrinks away from the cell wall).
79
If a plant cell gains a lot of water, what happens?
It becomes turgid (cell membrane pushes up against the cell wall).
80
Define active transport.
The movement of substances from a low concentration to a high concentration (against a concentration gradient).
81
What two things does active transport require that diffusion doesn't?
1. A transport protein (found in the cell membrane), 2. Energy.
82
From what reaction does the energy required for active transport come?  
Respiration.
83
Where does active transport happen within a cell?
The mitochondria.
84
Give two examples of where active transport is used in Biology. (1 plant, 1 animal)
1. Plant root hair cells absorbing mineral ions from the soil, 2. Glucose absorption from the small intestine into the blood.

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