Biological Glycogen Knowledge Points
Glycogen (C H O)n, also known as animal starch, was a branched-chain glycan condensed from many glucose. It was a storage form of glucose in humans and animals. I. Glycogen synthesis (Glycogen Formation) 1. During the resting period after the liver completes the Colli cycle, the process of glycogen production is initiated; this process can also be initiated by hormone, such as after a sugar-rich meal, which is secreted in response to the increased blood sugar level. 2. The general process of synthesizing glycogen from glucose was as follows: glucose → glucose 6 -monophosphate → glucose 1 -monophosphate → eudPG → glycogen. II. Glycogen distribution It was mainly distributed in the liver (liver glycongen) and skeletal muscle (muscle glycongen) of animals. Glycongen was also found in some lower plants, fungi, yeasts, and bacteria. Among them, the human liver stores about 100g of glycogen (accounting for 6% - 8% of the liver weight) to maintain the stability of human blood sugar, and about 400g in skeletal muscle (accounting for about 1% - 2% of skeletal muscle weight). The molecular structure of glycogen 1. D-glucose, which was linked by alpha- 1,4 and alpha- 1,6 glycosidic bonds, could be completely digested into D-glucose with a molecular weight of 1 million to 10 million. It was a highly branched and uneven molecular. 2. The straight chain was mainly bound by alpha-1,4 giycosidic bonds, while the branched chain was bound by alpha-1,6 giycosidic bonds. Each branch contained 12 - 8 sugar residue. There was a branch every three sugar units on the main chain, and there were branches on the branches every three sugar units. The outermost branch contained about 6 - 7 sugar units. Glycogen had only one reducing end, but there were many non-reducing ends. Glycogen synthesis and digestion started from the non-reducing end. The Nature of Glycogen 1. Glycogen was a white powder with a density of 1.629g/cm 3. It was not dissolved in alcohol, but it was dissolved in hot water and reacted with iodine-producing a brownish-red color. 2. Its chemical composition is very similar to starch. Function of Glycogen 1. The main function of hepatic glycogen - It provides glucose to maintain blood sugar levels during exercise. When muscles extract glucose from the blood for the production of Ang-3, if other sources of glucose cannot be used immediately, the blood sugar level will drop. The decomposition of liver glycogen can prevent the low blood sugar caused by exercise. 2. Muscle Glycogen's Main Function - It provides glucose for the glycolysis in the muscles during exercise. The glucose produced by its decomposition remains in the muscles and provides fuel for the production of adenosinetrimonate. 3. Glycogen can also be used as an energy source for metabolism. The human body's intake of glycogen can improve the heart and blood circulation ability, and protect the liver. Read more exciting novels for free
Cellulose and Glycogen are biological substances.
Celluloses were a type of glycan found in plants. They were the main components of plant cell walls, and they belonged to the class of glycans found in living organisms. Glycogen was a type of branched-chain glycan formed by the combination of glucose, also known as liver glycan or glycogen. It could be divided into liver glycogen and muscle glycogen. It was an energy storage substance found in animals, and it was also a class of glycogen. <a href="/?from=ask_words" style="color:red" target="_blank">Read more exciting novels for free</a>
Suke edition seven biological carp knowledge points
Crucian carp was a type of fish among the vertebrae. Its body could be divided into three parts: the head, the torso, and the tail. The external characteristics were as follows: - Its body was spindle-shaped, which helped to reduce the resistance when swimming in the water. Its torso and tail were covered with scales, and the scales had mucus on the surface, which also reduced the resistance when swimming. - The back of the body was dark gray, and the belly was silver white. It was a protective color and was not easy to be discovered by enemies in the water. - There was a line on each side of the body. The line was a special sensory organ that was connected to the nerves. It could sense the direction, speed, and direction of the water flow, which could help the carp avoid obstacles. - The motor organs were mainly fins, including a pair of pectoral fins and a pair of abdominal fins, as well as a pair of Dorsal fins, Anal fins, and Caudal fins. The pectorals and the fins maintained the balance of the fish, and the caudal fins controlled the direction of the fish. When the carp swam, it relied on the tail and the body to move forward, and the fins played a coordinating role. - The respiratory organ was the gills, which were mainly composed of gills. There were capillaries distributed on the gills, which were conducive to gas exchange. - The swim bladder was filled with air and could adjust the depth of the water, allowing the fish to stay in different water layers. <a href="/?from=ask_words" style="color:red" target="_blank">Read more exciting novels for free</a>
Seven basic biological structure knowledge points PEP edition
The following are the basic structural knowledge points of the seventh grade biology book published by the People's Education Press: ##1. Cell structure 1. ** Common structure of animal and plant cells ** - Cell membrane: Separates the substances inside the cell from the external environment, allowing the cell to have a stable internal environment. - [** Protoplasm **: A colorless, transparent, jelly-like substance located between the cell membrane and the nucleus. The protoplasm contains structures such as mitochondria.] - Nucleus: It contains genetic material and is the control center of the cell's life activities. 2. ** Unique structure of plant cells ** - ** Cell Wall **: Located on the outermost layer of plant cells, it plays a supporting and protective role. - ** Bubble **: Plant cells have a bubble, which is filled with cell fluid and dissolved with a variety of substances. The color of flowers is related to the cyanidins in the petal cell fluid. The color of cyanidins changes with the ph of the cell fluid. In young cells, the number of vesicles was small and numerous. As the cell grew, many small vesicles would combine to form a large central vesicle. - <strong></strong></strong><strong></strong> ##2. Cell Physiology 1. ** Cell Division **: The increase in the number of cells is achieved through cell division. 2. Cell growth: The process of cell size growing from small to large is called cell growth. 3. [Cell division: The result of cell division is the production of different tissues.] ##3. Temporary Filming 1. ** Steps for preparing onion skin cells for temporary mounting **:(The specific steps are not detailed, but it involves the process of collecting materials, making slices, dyeing, etc.) - In the middle of the slide, clean water was added, and the dyeing process was the process of adding an iodine-based solution. 2. ** Steps for making temporary mounting of human oral cells **:(The specific steps are not given in detail, but it involves the process of collecting materials, making films, dyeing, etc.) - Normal salt solution was dripped in the center of the slide, and the cells were scraped from the inside of the mouth with a toothpick. - Pay attention to the operation specifications when covering the cover glass to avoid bubbles, and operate correctly when staining to ensure that the cell structure can be clearly observed. <a href="/?from=ask_words" style="color:red" target="_blank">Read more exciting novels for free</a>
Seventh grade first volume biological organic matter knowledge points
1. ** The definition and composition of organic matter ** - The organic matter contained carbon and could be burned. For example, in cells, sugar, fat, protein, and DNA were all organic substances, and they were also large molecules. 2. ** Knowledge related to organic matter in green plants ** - In the experiment of green plants producing organic matter, starch was the product of photosynthesis. Through dark processing (Put it in the dark for a day and a night to remove the original starch in the leaves and exhaust it), select leaves to shade (To form a control experiment, the variable is light), sunlight exposure, alcohol detoxification (alcohol acts to dissolve the photosynthesis, and heating with water to prevent the alcohol from evaporating and burning, the color of the alcohol changes from colorless to green, and the color of the leaves changes from green to yellow-white), rinsing with clear water, dripping with iodination solution (to verify whether there is starch formation), rinsing with clear water, and so on. The conclusion can be drawn that starch is a product of photosynthesis and plants require light for photosynthesis. - The reaction formula for photosynthesis was carbon dioxide + water, organic matter (which stored energy)+ oxygen. The organic matter here was the product of photosynthesis. The raw materials of photosynthesis were carbon dioxide and water. The condition was light, and the place was the plastids. The essence of photosynthesis was to produce organic matter and store energy. - At the cellular level, organic matter constructs the plant body, such as the fiber in the cell wall, the protein and fat in the cell membrane, and the DNA in the nucleus. 3. ** Knowledge related to organic matter in the ecosystem ** - In an ecosystem, producers (usually green plants) can produce organic matter for themselves and other organisms to use. The organic matter flowed along the food chain and food web. The matter could be recycled, but the energy flowed in one direction and decreased step by step. At the same time, harmful substances gradually accumulate along the food chain. The higher the nutritional level, the more toxic substances (bioconcentration). <a href="/?from=ask_words" style="color:red" target="_blank">Read more exciting novels for free</a>
High school biological mutation and evolution breeding knowledge points summary chart
|knowledge points| particulars| |--|--| |variation types| It can be divided into inheritable mutations (including gene mutation, gene reorganization, and mutation) and non-inheritable mutations (only caused by the environment and not involving genetic material changes).| |gene mutation|<br>- ** molecular mechanism **: Amitosis, protocaryote division, and viral DNA replication can occur. It did not change the number of genes on the gene, only the structure of the gene. <br>- ** Type **: Dominant mutation (such as A→A, the trait can be immediately expressed after the mutation), Recessive mutation (such as A→A, the trait can be stably inherited after the trait is expressed). <br>- ** Effect on Traits **: It may change the traits (for example, a change in the function of the protein caused by a change in the code may affect the traits), or it may not change (there may not be changes in the reproductive cells of the body cells, the hidden genes are not expressed in the hybrid generation, the code is degenerate, and the traits are the result of the combination of genes and the environment, etc.). <br>- ** Benefits **: More harm than benefit. The benefits and risks depend on the environment. Some mutations are harmless and useless. It is more likely to occur in cells with DNA replication function. The probability of occurrence in reproductive cells is greater than that in body cells, and the number of cells that divide vigorously is greater than that of cells that stop dividing. Mutation breeding materials needed to be able to undergo cell division.| |genetic recombination|<br>- ** Narrow sense **: During Meiosis, the free combination of non-allelic genes on non-homolored embryos and the cross-exchange of non-sister chromatids on homolored embryos. <br>In addition to the narrow sense, it also includes genetic engineering and genetic material changes caused by plant cell hybrids.| |chromosome variation| It is different from other mutations (need to be combined with more content for comparison and analysis, such as the concept of genomes and genomes)| |breeding methods|<br>- ** Cross-breeding **: The conventional breeding method cannot produce new genes and recombine the original genes. <br>- Mutation Breeding: Able to produce new genes and create new types of mutations. <br>- ** Haploid Breeding **: Shortens the breeding period. <br>- ** Polyploids breeding **: The development of the embryo from a spore, with the body cells containing three or more sets of the genomes. <br>- ** Plant somatic-cell hybrid breeding **: Realizing the reorganization of genetic material at the cell level. <br>- ** Selection basis **: When a single trait is controlled by a pair of genes, different breeding methods have their own characteristics; when two or more traits are scattered in different varieties, the individual level can be crossbred or haploids, and the cell level can be plant somatics.| |biological evolution|<br>- ** Darwinian theory of natural selection **: A part of the theory of biological evolution. <br>- ** Modern Biological Evolution Theory **: It involves the calculation of gene frequency and other difficulties. Gene frequency rarely appears as an independent non-choice question. It is often analyzed as a multiple-choice question.| <a href="/?from=ask_words" style="color:red" target="_blank">Read more exciting novels for free</a>
Knowledge Points
Since the reference materials did not explicitly mention the complete specific knowledge points of the fourth chapter of university politics, I'm sorry. According to the information retrieved, I don't know how to answer. <a href="/?from=ask_words" style="color:red" target="_blank">Read more exciting novels for free</a>
Biochemical breakdown of glycogen
Glycogen decomposition was a biochemical process. In the presence of an organic phosphorus acid, it was catalyze by a Phosphorylating Acid. Phosphorylating began from the alpha-1,4 glycosidic bond at the non-reducing end of the glycogen molecules, releasing glucose- 1 -phosphorus acid until it formed limit starch. Subsequently, the glucose- 1 -phosphorous acid was converted to glucose- 6 -phosphorous acid under the catalyze of the glucose mutants. Finally, it was converted to glucose under the catalyze of the glucose- 6 -phosphorous acid in the liver. During this process, the glycogen debranching-ase also played a role. It could break the alpha-1,4-glycosidic bond between the third and fourth glycosides of the four glycosides in front of the branch point of the alpha-1,6-glycosidic bond left by the glycogen Phosphorase, move the three glycosides to the end of the other non-reducing end and connect them with the alpha-1,4-glycosidic bond. It could also make the remaining alpha-1,6-glycosidic bond connected to the glycoside to be digested. Releasing one molecular sugar. Glycogen cleavage requires glycogen Phosphorase and Debranchase. Glycogen Phosphorase has different Isozymes in skeletal muscle, liver, and brain. <a href="/?from=ask_words" style="color:red" target="_blank">Read more exciting novels for free</a>
Biological knowledge, about 800 words
Knowledge Atlas of the Biological Brain
The structure of the brain was more complicated. The following were the structures and functions of its main parts: - " frontal lobe: An important area in the brain's hemisphere structure. It is mainly responsible for casual movements, such as simple movements such as holding a cup and drinking water. It also involves advanced cognitive functions such as information processing, logical thinking, emotional management, emotional expression, intelligence, and so on. It also had the ability to smell and speak. If the frontal lobe was damaged or pathologically damaged, it might cause the body to convulse uncontrollably, hallucinate, have a loss of memory, slow reaction, lack of concentration, and even change in personality, such as mild people becoming irritable. - The frontal lobe is located between the frontal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. It is the main sensory region of the brain. The central back gyrus of the sensory area was responsible for superficial skin sensation and deep muscle and joint sensation, while the superior lobus was the cerebral center of touch and solid sensation, which could recognize familiar objects by touch. The brain's conscious senses depend on the sensory center of the cerebral hemisphere. Damage to the postcentral gyrus would result in sensory disturbance on the opposite side of the focus, and damage to the superior superior lobular lobe would result in sensory disturbance. In addition, part of the frontal lobe was the motor center, which was related to complex movements and labor skills. Another part was the reading center, which was used to understand the words and symbols. - ** Temporal lobe **: The reference material did not mention it, so it is impossible to answer accurately. - ** Occipital lobe **: The reference material did not mention it, so it is impossible to answer accurately. The brain can also be divided into the brain above the tentacle and the brain stem below the tentacle. There are also two cerebral hemisphere, the left and the right. The brain stem, the retina, and the cerebrum. All vertebrae had a brain stem, which contained structures related to basic life processes, such as breathing, pulse, arousal, movement, balance, and simple processing of sensory information. The oblongata was the center for the regulation of breathing, blood pressure, and heartbeat. The pontine brain was close to the oblongata and provided input fibers to other brainstem structures and the cerebrum. The reticular structure could wake up the cerebral hemisphere to pay attention to new stimulation. Large area damage could lead to coma. Its long fiber bundle could transmit the incoming sensory information to the cerebral hemisphere through the retina for further processing. The cerebrum was connected to the brainstem and located at the base of the skull. It coordinated body movements, controlled posture, and maintained balance. The limbic system was related to motivation, emotional state, and memory processes. It was also involved in the regulation of body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels. It was composed of the hippocampi, the almond nucleus, and the hypohedron. It only appeared in the brains of mammals. In addition, an international team of scientists produced the first map of every nerve cell and connection in the adult fruit fly brain, which helps to understand how the brain produces complex thoughts. It revealed 139,255 neurons in the fruit fly brain and as many as 50 million connections between them. Although the number of neurons in the human brain was about one million times that of the fruit fly, this result brought humans closer to understanding their own brains. <a href="/?from=ask_words" style="color:red" target="_blank">Read more exciting novels for free</a>
Little knowledge of biological fat
Fat was a type of fat that was composed of glucose and fatty acid. The elemental composition was mainly C, H, and O. In humans and animals, fat is mainly distributed in the fatty tissue. For example, the fatty tissue under the skin can keep warm, protect internal organs, reduce friction between organs, and buffer external pressure. The fat in animals is also an important energy storage material. The energy released by the decomposition of 1g fat (39KJ) is much higher than the energy released by the decomposition of 1g glygen (16.7KJ). Among plants, the seeds and fruits of some plants had a higher fat content. Fatty acid could be divided into saturated fatty acid and saturated fatty acid, while the latter could be divided into monounsaturated fatty acid and poly-saturated fatty acid. Animal fats contained more saturated fatty acid and were solid at room temperature, while vegetable oil contained more saturated fatty acid and was liquid at room temperature. The saturated fatty acid was heat-resistant, stable, and suitable for frying, but excessive intake might increase the risk of cardiovascular disease; the poly-saturated fatty acid was unstable and heat-resistant, suitable for frying; the monounsaturated fatty acid was heat-resistant, stable, and had little oil smoke, suitable for a variety of cooking methods. Fat metabolism was an important and complex biochemical reaction in the body. It involved the digestion, absorption, synthesis, and decomposition of fat. Digestion was mainly carried out in the upper part of the small intestine. Fat can also assist in the absorption of fat-dissolved vitamins and participate in various aspects of the body's metabolism. From a nutritional point of view, some fatty acid was very important for brain development, steroid production, immune system, and reproductive system. However, some fatty acid could not be synthesized by the human body itself and needed to be taken from the diet. In addition, the fat in the body has different distribution. The fat under the skin (including brown fat) is relatively beneficial, while the fat distributed in the internal organs or in the blood that exceeds the normal standard may be detrimental to health. However, fat itself is necessary for health, and low fat content is also detrimental to health. <a href="/?from=ask_words" style="color:red" target="_blank">Read more exciting novels for free</a>