4.2
If you are to be asked if you would want to have children in the future, what would your response be? How many children would you want? Would you prefer to have a son? a daughter? Or would the sexes of your children even be relevant?
When couples are asked why they have children, common answers reveal that they are mostly dominated by their feelings towards children. For most, having a child is an indicator of a successful union. This stems out of the belief that having children ensures the family of a successor generation that will continue its name, making the kinship preserved, and the family's story continues. While others however, worry how much strain a child can bring to the household as he/she '"competes" for the parents attention. For some, raising a child would demand additional energy from the family in order to provide the needs, love and care to an additional member. Taking these views or values as perspective, we can ask: Is having or not having children driven by economics? Will the child be an economic asset or a burden to the family?
As discussed in the previous modules, we learned that globalization has been said to be the key driver of social change. While authors differ on the extent and scale of this process, they all agree that current technologies and advancements in transportation and communication are ushering in unprecedented transformation in the local, national, and global context.This also means that changes in views, lifestyles and belief systems are also inevitable.
This includes the cultural views that people have towards basic institutions such as marriage and family. Over the past decades, scholars have noted how rural communities often prefer to have more children to help in in the farm, particularly during the planting and harvesting seasons (Claudio and Abinales, 2018). Instead of hiring other people, the children are utilized to give an extra hand to make the harvesting more efficient and productive. Likewise, families of poorer areas in urban centers also tend have more children because the success of their "small family business" rely on how many of their members can be selling their goods on the streets. Hence, they favor more children, for they are of great advantage for the economic survival of the family.
In contrast, urbanized, educated, and professional families with two incomes, however, desire just one or two children. Neither of the two professionals have the time to devote to having a kid, much more to parenting with each partner tied down, or committed to his/her respective professions. Likewise, these families also have their sights on long-term savings plans. As discussed by Claudio and Abinales (2018), these urbanized families set aside significant parts of their incomes for their retirement, health care, and the future education of their child/children.
Moreover, families in the rural area view many children and large kinship networks as critical investments. Children, for example, can take over the agricultural work and their houses can also become the "retirernent homes" of their parents, who will then proceed to take care of their grandchildren. Urban families, however, may not have the same kinship network anymore because couples live on their own, or because they move out of the farmlands. Thus, it is usually the nuclear family unit that is left to deal with their family concerns.
These differing versions of family life determine the economic and social policies that countries craft regarding their respective populations (Claudio and Abinales, 2018). The trend in countries in the "less developed regions of the world" that rely heavily on agriculture tend to maintain high levels of population growth while those in the "developed world" who underwent industrialization and urbanization tend to have an aging population. It is therefore necessary to undersatand how changes of population is affected by globalization. A significant change in a population's composition, structure, size, and location can have major effects on society.
Human Population Growth and the Demographic Transition
The world before 1800s experienced an era of very slow and uneven growth in terms of human population and it was only in 1800s that the world had reached 1 billion people in number. However, since the start of industrialization, unprecedented demographic shifts have been observed in many parts of the world. As argued by Warren Thomson (1929) on his proposed demographic transition model, decline of fertility and mortality from high to low levels brought about by changes, which primarily occurred after World War II, resulted in the increase in children's survival chances. This occurrence has brought about an era of population growth. The speed and time of the changes might differ among countries but it has now spread to all parts of the world and is projected to be completed by 2100. This global demographic transition has brought momentous changes, reshaping the economic and demographic life cycles of individuals and restructuring populations (Lee, 2003).
Stages of the Demographic Transition
Pre-Transition Stage: Before their economic modernization, the countries for centuries had stable or very slow-growing populations as a result of a combination of high birth rates and almost equally high death rates. Mortality rates were often caused by war, famine, diseases, natural disasters, etc. The population growth was relatively stable relative to its fertility and mortality rates and life expectancy was low during that time.
Mortality Decline: The mortality decline in northwest Europe started around 1800 which has also marked the beginning of the world's demographic transition (Fernadez et.al, 2018). The factors which contribute on this include the reductions in contagious and infectious diseases and the development of vaccine, public health measures, effective quarantine measures, and improved personal hygiene with the germ theory of disease. This led to the reduction in mortality and the increase of life expectancy from under 40 years to over 60 years. However, the decline in death rates was not immediately accompanied by a decline in fertility. As a result, the growing divergence between high birth rates and falling death rates led to sharp increases in population growth compared to past centuries (Todaro and Smith, 2015). This era thus marks the beginning of the demographic transition- the transition from stable or slow-growing populations first to rapidly increasing numbers and then to declining rates.
Fertility Decline: The last stage of demographic transition was entered when the forces and influences of modernization and development caused the beginning of a decline in fertility; eventually, falling birth rates converged with lower death rates, leaving little or no population growth (Todaro and Smith, 2015). Based on the reports of Coale and Treadway (1986, 44) as discussed by Fernandez et.al (2018), the marital fertility declined in most of the European states with a median decline of about 40% from 1870 to 1930. This started with the idea that couples wish to have certain number of surviving children rather than births. The issues on parental investment in children narrates that fertility is influenced by how economic change impacts the cost and benefits of child-bearing. Indeed, the activities on bearing and rearing children are time-intensive. The labor becomes more productive as there are technological progress and growing physical and human capital. This also raises the value of time in all activities; even making children costly relative to the consumption of goods. There had been variations in women productivity as these women are particularly vital in child-bearing and rearing. As a result, children become more expensive, their economic contributions are decreased by school time and these educated parents have higher value of time. The latter scene raises the opportunity costs of childbearing.
Negative Consequences of Population Growth
According to the latest empirical research, the potential negative consequences of population growth for economic development can be divided into seven categories: its impact on economic growth, poverty and inequality, education, health, food, the environment, and international migration. Below is a table that is adapted from the book, Economic Development (12th Edition) by Michael Todaro and Stephen Smith that was published in 2015.
Table 3. Negative Consequences of Population Growth
Negative Consequences of Population Growth
1. Economic Growth
In most developing countries, rapid population growth lowers per capita income growth especially those that are dependent on agriculture, and experiencing pressures on land ownership and natural resources.
2. Poverty and Inequality.
The negative consequences of rapid population growth fall most heavily on the poor because they are the ones who are made landless, suffer first from cuts in government health and education programs, and bear the brunt of environmental damage.To the extent that large families perpetuate poverty, they also exacerbate inequality.
3. Education
Large family size and low incomes restrict the opportunities of parents to educate all their children. At the national level, rapid population growth causes educational expenditures to be spread more thinly, lowering quality for the sake of quantity. This in turn feeds back on economic growth because the stock of human capital is reduced by rapid population growth.
4. Health
High fertility harms the health of mothers and children. It increases the health risks of pregnancy, and closely spaced births have been shown to reduce birth weight and increase child mortality rates.
5. Food
Feeding the world's population is made more difficult by rapid
population growth—a large fraction of developing country food requirements
are the result of population increases. New technologies of production
must be introduced more rapidly, as the best lands have already been
cultivated. International food relief programs become more widespread.
6. Environment
Rapid population growth contributes to environmental degradation in the form of forest encroachment, deforestation, fuelwood depletion, soil erosion, declining fish and animal stocks, inadequate and unsafe water, air pollution, and urban congestion
7. International Migration
Many observers consider the increase in international migration, both legal and illegal, to be one of the major consequences of developing countries' population growth. Though many factors spur migration, an excess of job seekers (caused by rapid population growth) over job opportunities is surely one of them.
Present Trends in Population
Population changes therefore can be brought about by many factors including industrialization, urbanization, natural disasters, diseases, and conflicts. In the Philippines, a large part of the working population choose to migrate to other countries in search of employment. The Commission on Filipinos Overseas (CFO) estimates that there are more than 10 million Filipinos in more than 200 countries and territories around the world, and that one in ten Filipnos has a relative or acquaintance who is a migrant. This phenomenon has brought about a "culture of migration" where traveling abroad for work has become an opportunity for many Filipinos to better their lives.
Japan and South Korea, meanwhile, have also been experiencing a number of significant cultural changes driven by demographic shifts. These countries are known for having highly developed economies and a rapidly aging population. It is a common phenomenon in these societies for people, particularly women, to postpone marriage until later in life. There is a growing number of women who have been delaying marriage to focus on their careers, with many opting to remain unmarried. This has resulted in a population shift where the young population is steadily decreasing. Another result of this phenomenon of career women is the growing tendency of Japanese and Korean men, especially those living in rural areas, to marry foreign women. Additionally, the increasing number of old people in these countries has resulted in an increased need for caregivers. A solution to these concerns is the settlement of foreigners into these countries for employment and marriage. Though Japanese and Korean culture frown upon the practice of marrying foreigners, recent fears of a declining labor force and shrinking population have led their respective governments to encourage marriage migration through grants and multicultural programs.
Migration
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another for the purpose of temporary or permanent residence. Migration often involves the movement of people across long distances. Emigration or out-migration refers to the movement of people out of their own native country, while immigration refers to the movement of people into a country that is not their native land. Internal migration refers to the movement of people within their own country, and involves transferring from one city or locality to another.
The United Nations estimates that there are more than 200 million migrants all over the world. The information implies that millions of people are now residing in countries that were not the land of their birth. Globalization, fueled by transportation, communication, and information technology, also contributes to the unprecedented growth of migrants in recent years.
Migrants are categorized as either permanent, temporary, or irregular migrants. Permanent migrants are those who have acquired residency or citizenship while temporary migrants are those who stay abroad for employment and have a work visa facilitated by their employer. Irregular migrants are those who do not possess legal documents but continue to stay in a foreign country because they need to work. They are the most vulnerable type of migrants because they are prone to abuse and other dangers.
Migrants may also be classified according to their purpose for staying in a destination country or the circumstances in which they were directed to a particular country. For example, students studying abroad are classified as migrants because their stay is dependent on the scope and duration of their study. Refugees are migrants who are forced to move into another country because they were displaced by wars, political persecution, or natural disasters.
Not all migrants are welcomed in their destination countries. Some migrants are regarded as "problems" because they are perceived to take away jobs from the locals. Ethnic and cultural differences also contribute to the ill treatment of migrants, since the population of their destination countries often consider them different or "alien" because of the color of their skin and their religious and cultural practices. These views often lead to racial discrimination and conflicts in many nations which have a considerable migrant population. For this reason, migration is a controversial political issue particularly in Western nations, who have the highest populations of migrants. They often contend with the social issues arising from migration.
Filipinos have a long history of labor out-migration, a particular type of migration based on the demand for cheap labor provided by migrants. Historians trace the history of migration to the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade in the 16th century when Filipino seafarers were forced to work in Spanish ships. The period of American colonial rule also had a significant impact on Philippine migration. The Americans initiated a program which gave the children of the Filipino elite the opportunity to travel to America to study. These scholars or pensionados were regarded as future bureaucrats who will help build the nation as it prepared for self-government. In more recent times, during the 1950s and 1960s, Filipino nurses and doctors found employment overseas due to the shortage of medical professionals in many foreign countries.
It was during the administration of Ferdinand Marcos in the 1970s when statesponsored overseas employment was initiated. It was initially considered a stop-gap measure to provide employment and prevent public unrest, but it soon became a defining feature of Philippine political economy and culture beginning in the 1980s. The phenomenon of Filipino migrant workers continues to this day. As of the end of 2013, the Commission on Filipinos Overseas (CFO) estimates that there are more than 10.2 million Filipinos in more than 200 countries and territories abroad, with 4.8 million permanent migrants who mostly reside in the United States and Canada. There are also 4.2 million temporary migrants that are primarily located in Saudi Arabia and other parts of the Middle East. Irregular migrants, meanwhile, are estimated to number around 1.1 million. Temporary and irregular migrants are collectively called Overseas Filipino Workers or OFWs. Currently, labor out-migration is considered a significant and complex social issue. Current studies show that labor out-migration is brought about by several factors such as lack of employment opportunities in the country, an increased social network among Filipinos in many foreign countries, and personal reasons.
The Philippine economy greatly benefits from Filipino migrant workers, as their financial remittances are among the largest sources of income for the country. In 2014 alone, a total of US$26.9 billion worth of personal remittances were reported by the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP). These cash transfers help improve the country's dollar reserves making the economy more stable. The families of OFWs are directly benefited since they are able to send their children to good schools, buy properties, and invest in business.
Despite the benefits of migrant labor, several challenges have emerged for migrant workers. Temporary and irregular migrants sometimes work in precarious conditions. OFWs also face the threat of abuse, human trafficking, and exploitation. One example is the case of Mary Jane Veloso, who was victimized by illegal recruiters and drug traffickers. She was sent to Indonesia under the pretext that she will be employed as a domestic worker. Unknown to her, she became an unwitting drug courier as illegal drugs were inserted into her luggage, and the discovery of the contraband led to her arrest by Indonesian authorities. In 2015, news of her imminent execution for drug trafficking led to mass action by advocates of migrant rights, who initiated protests and vigils participated in by many Filipinos in our country and around the world. These actions prompted the Philippine and Indonesian governments to engage in talks and this led to a reprieve for Mary Jane Veloso. The stay of her execution is largely attributed to non-government organizations in Indonesia and in the Philippines who tirelessly advocated her cause. The Indonesian government is currently reviewing her case.
Philippine society will continue to contend with the effects of labor out-migration as long as a significant number of Filipinos are compelled to travel abroad for employment. Only the presence of decent job opportunities in the Philippines can make out-migration a choice rather than a necessary sacrifice for many Filipinos.
Conclusion
Demography is a complex discipline that requires the integration of various social scientific data. As you have seen, demographic changes and policies have impacts on the environment, politics, resources, and others, Yet, at its core, demography accounts for the growth and decline of the human species. It may be about large numbers and massive effects, but it is ultimately about people. Thus, no interdisciplinary account of globalization is complete without an accounting of people.