counseling
An industrial psychologist usually works for a corporation. The principal
aim is to provide a work environment that will facilitate production, reduce accidents,
and maintain employee morale. A theme that guides industrial psychology
is "the human use of human beings."
(a) A counseling psychologist provides .
(b) A human factors psychologist combines a knowledge of what two subject areas?
Answers: (a) advice and guidance; (b) Engineering and psychology.
Introduction: The Foundations of Psychology 13
SELF-TEST
1. The primary subject matter of psychology is
a. the philosophical concept of the psyche
b. the behavior of organisms
c. the conscious mind
d. the unconscious mind
2. Which one of the following is not a goal of scientific psychology?
a. To abstract behavior
b. To explain behavior
c. To predict behavior
d. To control behavior
3. What characterizes a school of psychology?
a. Its physiological research
b. Its stand on Gestalt psychology
c. Its orientation toward psychoanalysis
d. Its viewpoint and assumptions
4. Functionalism, associated with William James, is particularly interested in
a. introspection
b. the structure of consciousness
c. how the mind works
d. developmental psychology
5. Which one of the following is correctly associated with the German word
Gestalt?
a. Neuron
b. Organized whole
c. Physiological psychology
d. Repression
6. What school of psychology indicates that it is important to study behavior
itself, not the mind or consciousness?
a. Behaviorism
b. Structuralism
c. Psychoanalysis
d. Functionalism
7. The principal assumption of psychoanalysis is that
a. habits determine behavior
b. human beings do not have an unconscious mental life
c. human beings have an unconscious mental life
d. all motives are inborn
14 PSYCHOLOGY
8. The cognitive viewpoint stresses the importance of
a. learning
b. thinking
c. motivation
d. biological drives
9. What viewpoint stresses the importance of the activity of the brain and nervous
system?
a. The psychodynamic viewpoint
b. The learning viewpoint
c. The humanistic viewpoint
d. The biological viewpoint
10. Psychotherapy is a work activity associated with what field of psychology?
a. Experimental psychology
b. Developmental psychology
c. Clinical psychology
d. Physiological psychology
ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST
1-b 2-a 3-d 4-c 5-b 6-a 7-c 8-b 9-d 10-c
ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ
1. False. Modern psychology is defined as the science that studies the behavior of organisms.
2. True.
3. True.
4. False. The biological viewpoint assumes that behavior can be explained in terms of such
factors as genes, the endocrine system, or the brain and nervous system.
5. True.
KEY TERMS
Introduction: The Foundations of Psychology 15
actions
behavior
behaviorism
biological viewpoint
clinical psychology
cognitive processes
cognitive viewpoint
counseling psychologist
data
developmental psychologist
eclecticism
emotional states
16 PSYCHOLOGY
experimental psychology
functionalism
Gestalt
human factors psychologist
humanistic viewpoint
hysteria
industrial psychologist
introspection
learning viewpoint
organism
physiological psychologist
psyche
psychiatry
psychoanalysis
psychodynamic viewpoint
psychological testing
psychology
psychotherapy
repression
schools of psychology
self-actualization
sociocultural viewpoint
somatoform disorder, conversion type
structuralism
tabula rasa
will to meaning
2 Research Methods
in Psychology:
Gathering Data
17
PREVIEW QUIZ
True or False
1. T F Forming a hypothesis is an important step in the scientific method.
2. T F Naturalistic observation is characterized by the use of a control group.
3. T F The clinical method is a research technique associated primarily with
the treatment of individuals with mental or behavioral disorders.
4. T F The testing method explores human behavior by using psychological
tests of attributes such as intelligence, personality, and creativity.
5. T F The experimental method is flawed as a method because it provides no
way for a researcher to obtain control over variables.
(Answers can be found on page 28.)
In the opening chapter you learned that scientific psychology has four
explicit goals—to describe, explain, predict, and control behavior. In order
to accomplish these goals it is essential to employ effective research methods.
In this chapter you will become familiar with the principal ways in which
psychologists gather data and put the scientific method to work.
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to
• describe the three main steps in the scientific method;
• identify the principal research methods used by psychology;
• recognize some of the advantages and disadvantages of the various research
methods;
• understand the difference between a positive and a negative correlation;
• specify key concepts associated with the experimental method.
The Scientific Method: Do the Facts Support Your
Educated Guess?
In the days of psychology's long philosophical past, the method used to investigate
the behavior of human beings was rationalism. This is the point of view that
great discoveries can be made just by doing a lot of hard thinking. This is still a
workable approach in some fields of philosophy, and it has certainly been a workable
method in mathematics.
In psychology, however, rationalism alone can lead to contradictory conclusions.
At an informal level, rationalism is sometimes called "armchair philosophizing."
Using only writing and thinking, the British philosopher John Locke
(1632–1704) decided that there are no inborn ideas. Using the same approach as
Locke, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) concluded that the
human mind does have some a priori information, meaning that there are
inborn ideas of a certain kind. So you can see that rationalism alone is an unsatisfactory
method for psychology if it claims to be a science.
Contemporary psychology combines rationalism with empiricism. Naturally,
thinking is used. However, facts are gathered. Empiricism is the point of view
that knowledge is acquired by using the senses—by seeing, hearing, touching, and
so forth. Empiricism represents what William James called a tough-minded attitude.
The attitude can be expressed with the words "I'm stubborn. I can be convinced—
but you've got to show me."
Today's researchers do their best to gather data, information relevant to questions
they ask about human behavior. In order to gather data, various methods are
used. And these methods are the principal subjects of this chapter.
(a) What is the point of view that great discoveries can be made just by doing a lot of hard
thinking?
18 PSYCHOLOGY
(b) What is the point of view that knowledge is acquired by using the senses?
Answers: (a) Rationalism; (b) Empiricism.
Before we look at the various individual methods used to gather data, let's
take a look at the general approach that inspires all of the methods. This general
approach is called the scientific method. It is a systematic approach to
thinking about an interesting possibility, gathering data, and reaching a conclusion.
There are three main steps in the scientific method. The first step is to form a
hypothesis, a proposition about a state of affairs in the world. Informally, a hypothesis
is an educated guess about the way things are. Let's say that Nora is a teacher.
She observes at an informal level that students seem to do better on tests when the
room is slightly cool than when it is too warm. She forms this hypothesis: Room
temperature has an effect on test performance.
Let's say that she's interested enough to explore the merits of the hypothesis.
Nora takes the second step in the scientific method. She gathers data. Probably she
will compare student test performance under at least two different conditions.
We'll return to this aspect of data gathering when the experimental method is
presented later in this chapter.
The third step in the scientific method is to accept or reject the hypothesis. If the
data support the hypothesis, Nora will accept it. If the data do not support the
hypothesis, Nora will reject it.
Unfortunately, it is possible to make decision errors. Sometimes a hypothesis
is accepted that should not be accepted. This is called a Type I error. Sometimes
a hypothesis is rejected that should be accepted. This is called a Type II error.
The history of science, unfortunately, provides many examples of both kinds of
errors. The astronomer Percival Lowell (1855–1916), based on his observations,
concluded that there were canals and probably an advanced civilization on Mars.
Later research showed that there are neither canals nor an advanced civilization
there. He made a Type I error.
For many years, before the research of the French biologist Louis Pasteur
(1822–1895), medical doctors rejected various versions of the hypothesis that
some diseases can be caused by germs. They were making a Type II error.
(a) The three main steps in the scientific methods are to .
(b) What kind of error is made when a hypothesis is accepted that should not be accepted?
Answers: (a) form a hypothesis, gather data, and accept or reject the hypothesis;
(b) A Type I error.
Research Methods in Psychology: Gathering Data 19
Naturalistic Observation: Looking at Behavior
without Interference
Naturalistic observation requires a researcher to study behavior as it is happening
in its own setting. The researcher should have a "no interference" policy.
When people or animals know they are being observed, they may not behave in
the same way as when they're not being observed. Sometimes it is necessary for
the researcher to allow for a period of adaptation to his or her presence.
Let's say that Clayton, an anthropologist, is interested in studying the behavioral
patterns of a certain tribe. He lives among its people for a span of time, is
accepted by them as a friend, and they grow to trust him. He takes field notes as
objectively as possible. Eventually he publishes his findings for other scientists to
read. This is the essence of naturalistic observation as a method. (Anthropology,
like psychology, studies human behavior. Anthropology tends to focus on
physical, social, and cultural development.) Naturalistic observation has also been
used extensively to study the behavior of animals in their own habitats in the
wilderness.
Although psychology occasionally employs naturalistic observation, in practice,
research in psychology has tended to favor other methods.
Naturalistic observation requires a researcher to study behavior as it is .
Answer: happening in its own setting.
The Clinical Method: Studying Troubled People
The clinical method is a research technique associated primarily with the treatment
of individuals with mental or behavioral disorders. It arose within the associated
frameworks of psychiatry and clinical psychology. For example, a therapist
may treat a troubled person for a span of time. Initially, research may not be the
goal. However, at the conclusion of the case, the therapist may decide that the case
has many interesting features that make a contribution to our understanding of
either the therapy process, behavior, or both. Consequently, the therapist writes
up the case, and it is published in a professional journal.
You will recall from chapter 1 that Freud once worked with a colleague
named Josef Breuer. One of Breuer's patients was a young woman identified as
Anna O. Anna suffered from various symptoms of hysteria (see chapter 1). "The
Case of Anna O." is the first case in psychoanalysis, and it was published together
with other case histories in Breuer and Freud's book Studies on Hysteria in 1895.
Consequently, it can be said that psychoanalysis has its roots in the clinical
method.
20 PSYCHOLOGY
The clinical method arose within the associated frameworks of .
Answer: psychiatry and clinical psychology
The Case Study Method: One Subject at a Time
The case study method involves the study of one individual over a span of time.
It is similar to the clinical method. The difference between the the two methods
is that the subject in the case study method is not necessarily troubled.
Here is an example of the case study method. The Gestalt psychologist Max
Wertheimer and the physicist Albert Einstein were personal friends. Based on a
number of interviews with Einstein, Wertheimer studied the creative thought
processes utilized by Einstein in his formulation of the Special Theory of Relativity.
Wertheimer's observations and conclusions are the basis of one of the chapters
in his book Productive Thinking (1959).
The difference between the clinical method and the case study method is that the subject in
the case study method is not necessarily .
Answer: troubled.
The Survey Method: Large Samples from Larger
Populations
A survey attempts to take a large, general look at an aspect of behavior. Examples
of topics include sexual behavior, eating behavior, how people raise children,
spending habits, and so forth. A researcher may be interested in studying a population.
A population is a well-defined group. It need not be large. For example,
a home aquarium with ten fish is correctly said to have a population of ten. However,
in practice populations are often large (e.g., the population of the United
States, the population of California, the population a particular city). Consequently,
it is common to conduct the survey taken on a sample of the population.
The sample should be taken at random from the population. A random
sample allows the laws of chance to operate and provides an equal opportunity
for any member of the population to be included in the sample. Members of the
population fill out questionnaires, are interviewed, or are otherwise evaluated.
This constitutes the survey.
Among the more famous surveys conducted during the twentieth century
are the Kinsey surveys of sexual behavior published about fifty years ago. Con-
Research Methods in Psychology: Gathering Data 21
ducted by the Indiana University researcher Alfred Kinsey, the surveys, first of
males and then of females, provided valuable information concerning sexual
behavior. These studies gave a great impetus to the survey method as a way of
studying behavior.
(a) The survey attempts to take what kind of a look at an aspect of behavior?
(b) A population is .
Answers: (a) A large, general look; (b) a well-defined group.
A serious drawback of the survey method is the problem of bias in the sample.
In 1936 Alfred ("Alf") Landon, the Republican governor of Kansas, ran for president
against Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the incumbent. It was widely expected
that Landon would win because a telephone poll conducted by a magazine called
The Liberty Digest predicted Landon's victory. Although the survey method used
by the poll took names at random from the phone book, it appears that during the
Great Depression, with the nation plagued by 30 percent unemployment, more
Republicans than Democrats had telephones. Consequently, the survey made an
incorrect prediction.
The difficulty associated with biased sampling from a population of interest is
a general problem, one that is not limited to surveys. Most research is conducted
on samples, not populations. A researcher, no matter what research method he or
she employs, needs to assess the quality of the sample obtained.
An important drawback of the survey method is the problem of .
Answer: bias in the sample.
The Testing Method: Mental Measurements
The testing method explores human behavior by using psychological tests of
attributes such as intelligence, personality, and creativity. These tests are often
of the paper-and-pencil variety, and the subject completes the test following a
set of instructions. In some cases the test is given in interview form on a oneto-
one basis by an examiner. Individual intelligence tests are often administered
in this manner.
An example of the testing method is provided by the research of Lewis Terman
(1877–1956) on gifted children. Using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
as a research tool, Terman studied subjects with very high intelligence quotient
(IQ) scores from childhood to late adulthood. (Associates continued the study
after Terman's death.) The research supported the hypothesis that high intelligence
is desirable. On the whole, gifted children had better health and lower
22 PSYCHOLOGY
divorce rates than most people. (There is more about intelligence and IQ in
chapter 10.)
(a) Identify three kinds of human attributes associated with the testing method.
(b) Children with high intelligence quotient (IQ) scores are called .
Answers: (a) Intelligence, personality, and creativity; (b) gifted.
Two problems associated with psychological testing are validity and reliability.
In order for a psychological test to be useful it needs to be both valid and reliable.
A valid test measures what it is supposed to measure. If a test that is given to
measure the intelligence of subjects instead actually measures the individual's
motivation to take the test, the test is invalid.
A reliable test gives stable, repeatable results. If a subject is tested twice with the
same instrument within a few days, the two scores obtained should be very close to
each other. One of the functions of the next method to be identified, the correlational
method, is to establish both the validity and reliability of psychological tests.
(a) A valid test measures what it is .
(b) A reliable test gives .
Answers: (a) supposed to measure; (b) stable, repeatable results.
The Correlational Method: When X Is Associated with Y
The word correlation refers to the relationship between two variables. These are
usually designated as X and Y on a graph. If scores on one variable can be used to
predict scores on the second variable, the variables are said to covary. Let's say that
X stands for shoe size on the right foot. Y stands for shoe size on the left foot. If
the both feet are measured on one hundred subjects, it is obvious that a measurement
on the right foot will predict, with some variations, a measurement on the
left foot (and vice versa). This example also illustrates that a correlation does not
necessarily provide a basis to conclude that causation is present. The size of the
right foot does not cause the size of left foot. The sizes covary because they both
probably have the same genetic cause in common; they don't cause each other.
In the above example, a positive correlation is said to exist. This means that
increases in variable X suggest increases in variable Y. On the other hand, if
increases in variable X were to suggest decreases in variable Y, a negative correlation
would be said to exist. Of course, in some cases there is no relationship.
Then a zero correlation is said to exist.
Research Methods in Psychology: Gathering Data 23
(a) If scores on one variable can be used to predict scores on a second variable, the variables
are said to .
(b) If increases in variable X suggest increases in variable Y, what kind of correlation is said
to exist?
Answers: (a) covary; (b) A positive correlation.
The magnitude of a correlation is measured with the use of the correlation
coefficient, a statistical tool developed by the mathematician Karl Pearson about
one hundred years ago in association with the researcher Francis Galton. Galton
used Pearson's tool to measure the correlation between the eminence of fathers
and that of their sons. He found that eminent fathers tended to have eminent sons.
For example, a father who was a judge might have a son who was an army general.
Obscure fathers tended to have obscure sons. Galton used this evidence to
accept the hypothesis that heredity determines a person's abilities. The research is
flawed by the simple fact that eminent fathers are in positions to help their sons
also attain eminence. In other words, the effects of environment may be as important
as heredity in determining a person's vocational achievement. Although Galton's
research on heredity is not taken seriously today, it did produce the very
useful tool known as the correlation coefficient.
Correlation coefficients can range from −1.00 to +1.00. A perfect negative
correlation is −1.00, and +1.00 stands for a perfect positive correlation. There
can also be correlation coefficients between these two values. For example, −.85
indicates a high negative correlation, and +.62 indicates a moderate positive
correlation.
24 PSYCHOLOGY
Trend line
y
x
Graph for a positive correlation. The trend
line shows that in general as X increases, Y
also increases.
Earlier it was indicated that the correlational method can be used to establish
both the validity and reliability of tests. If an intelligence test has a high positive
correlation with student grades, this suggests that the test is valid. If Form A of a
psychological test has a high positive correlation with Form B of the same test, the
test is reliable.
(a) What does the correlation coefficient measure?
(b) Correlation coefficients can range from .
Answers: (a) The magnitude of a correlation; (b) −1.00 to +1.00.
The Experimental Method: A Tool with Great Power
Of all of the methods presented, the experimental method is the one that gives
a researcher the most confidence when making the decision to accept or reject
a hypothesis. The experimental method is a research tool characterized by a
control over variables, the identification of a cause (or causes), and a welldefined
measure of behavior. These aspects of the experimental method give it
great power.
Four key concepts will help you understand the experimental method: (1) the
control group, (2) the experimental group, (3) the independent variable, and
(4) the dependent variable. Definitions will be presented followed by an example
incorporating all four concepts into an experiment. The control group receives
no treatment; it is dealt with in a more or less conventional manner. It provides a
standard of comparison, a set of observations that can be contrasted with the
behavior of the experimental group.
The experimental group receives a novel treatment, a condition (or set of
conditions) that is presumed to affect behavior. It is the target group, the one that
will perhaps provide original or particularly interesting data.
(a) The experimental method is a research tool characterized by .
(b) Which group receives no treatment?
Answers: (a) a control over variables; (b) The control group.
The independent variable is one that is assigned to the subjects by the
experimenter. There will be at least two values, or measures, of this variable. It is
the variable that is thought of as a cause of behavior.
The dependent variable is a measure of the behavior of the subjects. In most
experiments, this variable can be expressed as a set of scores. The dependent variable
is associated with the effect of a cause. Scores make it possible to compute statistical
measures and make evaluations based on the data.
Research Methods in Psychology: Gathering Data 25
(a) The word cause is best associated with what variable?
(b) The dependent variable is a measure of .
Answers: (a) The independent variable; (b) the behavior of the subjects, an effect.
You will recall that near the beginning of this chapter a teacher named Nora
was said to have formed the hypothesis that room temperature has an effect on test
performance. Let's say that Nora wants to do an experiment to evaluate this
hypothesis.
Nora writes the names of sixty students on a set of cards. The cards are shuffled
and then dealt into two groups, Group A and Group B. A coin is flipped. She
says in advance that if heads comes up, Group A will be the control group. If tails
comes up, Group B will be the control group. Heads comes up, and Group A
becomes the control group. By default, Group B is designated the experimental
group.
It is important to note that the process by which subjects are assigned to
groups is a random process, meaning all subjects have an equal chance of being
included in either group. The aim of this procedure is to cancel out the effects of
individual differences in the subjects that may have an effect on the experiment.
Such variables as age, sex, weight, intelligence, and income level are not, for the
moment, under study. A practical way to minimize the effects of such variables is
to assign subjects randomly to conditions.
The independent variable will be room temperature. Let's say that most of the
time Nora's students take tests in a room that is 68 degrees Fahrenheit. The control
group will be tested in a room at this temperature.
Up until now Nora has been thinking that a "cool" room will have a positive
effect on test performance. The time has come to define "cool" more precisely.
An operational definition is required, a definition of a variable such as
"cool" in terms of its measurement operations. Nora decides that her operational
definition of "cool" will be a temperature of 55 degrees Fahrenheit. The
word cool is an imprecise, subjective term. On the other hand, 55 degrees
Fahrenheit is precise and objective. The experimental group will be tested at
this temperature.
Let's say that subjects in both groups are given the same twenty-question
multiple-choice test. Scores range from a low of 5 to a high of 20 correct. The
mean (i.e., average) score for subjects in the control group is 11. The mean score
for subjects in the experimental group is 14. On the surface, it appears that Nora
will make the decision to accept her experimental hypothesis. It appears that a
cool room does in fact facilitate test performance.
Before a firm decision can be made to accept or reject a hypothesis, a statistical
evaluation of the data must be made. A difference between means is sometimes
due to chance.
26 PSYCHOLOGY
An experiment can, of course, be much more interesting than the one
described, and there can be two or more independent variables. However, Nora's
experiment was presented because it reveals the essentials of the experimental
method.
(a) Subjects should be assigned to groups by what kind of a process?
(b) An operational definition is a definition of a variable in terms of .
Answers: (a) A random process; (b) its measurement operations.
SELF-TEST
1. The point of view that knowledge is acquired by using the senses is called
a. rationalism
b. voluntarism
c. behaviorism
d. empiricism
2. Which one of the following is not a step associated with the scientific method?
a. Reject all operational definitions
b. Form a hypothesis
c. Gather data
d. Accept or reject the hypothesis
3. Sometimes a hypothesis is rejected that should be accepted. This is called
a. a Type I error
b. an alpha error
c. a Type II error
d. an intrinsic error
4. Naturalistic observation requires a researcher to study behavior
a. in animals only
b. as it is happening in its own setting
c. using two independent variables
d. by making sure the subjects know they are being observed
5. The behavior of Anna O. was studied with the assistance of what method?
a. The clinical method
b. Naturalistic observation
c. The experimental method
d. The correlational method
Research Methods in Psychology: Gathering Data 27
6. A population is
a. a very large sample
b. defined by its bias
c. a subset of a sample
d. a well-defined group
7. The research of Lewis Terman on gifted children is an example of
a. the experimental method
b. the clinical method
c. the testing method
d. the validity method
8. The size of the right foot can usually be used to predict the size of the left foot.
This is an example of a
a. zero correlation
b. negative correlation
c. positive correlation
d. lack of covariance
9. In an experiment, the control group
a. receives no treatment
b. receives a novel treatment
c. is expected to provide particularly interesting data
d. is the error variance group
10. The variable that is assigned to the subjects by the experimenter is called
a. the dependent variable
b. the independent variable
c. the organismic variable
d. the congruent variable
ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST
1-d 2-a 3-c 4-b 5-a 6-d 7-c 8-c 9-a 10-b
ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ
1. True.
2. False. Naturalistic observation does not use a control group.
3. True.
4. True.
5. False. One of the advantages of the experimental method is that it provides a
researcher a way to obtain control over variables.
28 PSYCHOLOGY
KEY TERMS
Research Methods in Psychology: Gathering Data 29
a priori information
anthropology
case study method
clinical method
control group
correlation coefficient
correlational method
dependent variable
empiricism
experimental group
experimental method
hypothesis
independent variable
naturalistic observation
negative correlation
operational definition
population
positive correlation
random process
random sample
rationalism
reliability
sample
scientific method
survey
testing method
tough-minded attitude
Type I error
Type II error
validity
zero correlation
3 The Biology of Behavior:
Is the Brain the Organ
of Mental Life?
30
PREVIEW QUIZ
True or False
1. T F A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger.
2. T F The two divisions of the brain are the sympathetic division and the
parasympathetic division.
3. T F The two pituitary glands are located on top of the kidneys.
4. T F The left hemisphere of the brain tends to mediate verbal and mathematical
thinking.
5. T F The general adaptation syndrome is a reaction pattern associated with
stress.
(Answers can be found on page 43.)
Chapter 2 made it evident that research is based on observations—events
that can be seen and heard in the external world. A good starting point for
such observations is the biology of the organism itself. A substantial
amount of reliable data has been gathered concerning how the brain, the
nervous system, and other structures actually function.
The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 31
Objectives
After completing the chapter, you will be able to
• explain the way in which a neuron functions;
• describe the structure of the nervous system;
• specify some of the principal structures and functions of the brain;
• differentiate between the functions of the left and right hemispheres of the brain;
• identify the endocrine glands and their functions.
In the 1983 Steve Martin film The Man with Two Brains, a woman's personality
is changed when her own brain is removed and then replaced with a different
one. The plot is based on the assumption that the brain is the organ of mental life.
This assumption, associated with the biological viewpoint (see chapter 1), sees the
activity of the brain and nervous system as the basis of consciousness. The relationship
between the brain and the mind in this way of looking at things is
roughly the same as the relationship of a piano to the melody that one hears when
the piano is played. The piano, like the brain, is a physical organ. The melody, like
the mind, is somewhat less tangible.
This chapter explores behavior from the biological point of view. Of particular
interest are (1) the brain and nervous system and (2) the endocrine system.
The biological viewpoint sees the of the brain and nervous system as the basis
of consciousness.
Answer: activity.
The Neuron: The Building Block of the Nervous System
The principal functional units of the brain and the nervous system are neurons.
The neuron is a living cell with a cell wall and a nucleus. Unlike other cells of the
body, neurons specialize in transmitting messages. Of particular importance are
two structures called the dendrite and the axon. A neuron often has more than
one dendrite; dendrites are reminiscent of a root system. They act like antennas,
picking up information and sending it in the direction of the cell body. The axon
extends from the cell body like a long filament. Although there can be more than
one dendrite, there is always just one axon. The axon consistently sends information
away from the cell body, often to an adjacent neuron.
32 PSYCHOLOGY
At the end of the axon there is an end foot, a slightly bulging structure that
releases neurotransmitters. A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that
allows a neuron to communicate with either other neurons or muscle fibers. The
neurotransmitter travels across a physical gap called the synaptic cleft. The functional
connection between, for example, two neurons is called the synapse. Note
that there is a formal distinction between a synaptic cleft and a synapse. The first
refers to a physical characteristic; the second refers to a functional characteristic. It
is common to hear people refer to the gap itself as the synapse, and this is incorrect.
In order for a neurotransmitter to work, it must find a receptor site on an
adjacent cell. The receptor site has a physical shape that matches that of the neuron.
A useful analogy is a key and a lock. The neurotransmitter is like the key; the
receptor site is like the lock.
(a) An axon consistently sends information .
(b) A neurotransmitter is also referred to as a .
(c) In order for a neurotransmitter to work, what must it find on an adjacent cell?
Answers: (a) away from the cell body; (b) chemical messenger; (c) A receptor site.
Neurotransmitters have received a lot of attention in recent years. Their activity
often forms the basis of biological theories of mental disorders. For example,
low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin are associated with depression. Specific
drugs called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) increase the
amount of useable serotonin at the synapse. (Prozac is such a drug.)
For a second example, excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine is
associated with schizophrenia, a mental disorder characterized by delusions. There
is evidence to suggest that chronic schizophrenic patients have too many receptor
sites for dopamine, and this causes excessive dopamine activity. It is this activity
Dendrites Cell wall Axon End foot
Nucleus Synaptic cleft
Two adjacent neurons with selected structures.
The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 33
that induces delusions. Some of the principal antipsychotic drugs block receptor
sites for dopamine. (See the section on drug therapy in chapter 15.)
(a) Identify a neurotransmitter associated with depression.
(b) Identify a neurotransmitter associated with schizophrenia.
Answers: (a) Serotonin; (b) Dopamine.
Three basic kinds of neurons are (1) sensory, (2) association, and (3) motor.
Sensory neurons make it possible for us to be in contact with the outside world.
They are sensitive to light, sound, chemicals that induce taste sensations, and so
forth. The rods and cones in the retina of your eye are sensory neurons.
Association neurons communicate with each other. Most of the neurons in
your brain are association neurons. They allow you to think, remember, and perceive.
It is the rich complexity of association neurons that makes selfconsciousness
possible.
Motor neurons communicate with muscle fibers, and these too are cells of
the body. Complex contractions and relaxations of muscle fibers make it possible
for us to talk, walk, and otherwise act.
(a) Sensory neurons make it possible for us to be in contact with .
(b) Association neurons communicate with .
(c) Motor neurons communicate with .
Answers: (a) the outside world; (b) each other; (c) muscle fibers.
The brain contains about 3 billion neurons. The rest of the nervous system
contains approximately the same amount. The population of the planet Earth
is rapidly approaching 6 billion people. It is impressive to think that the quantity
of neurons you possess is roughly equivalent to the human population of our
world.
When a neuron releases neurotransmitters it is like a gun; when it "fires," it
sends forth a spray of neurotransmitters. The formal term for "fire" is depolarize.
When a neuron depolarizes, it alternates from (1) a resting negative electrical
potential to (2) a positive electrical potential, and (3) returns to a negative electrical
potential again. This completes a cycle. In some cases a neuron can complete
2,000 to 3,000 cycles in a single second.
A nerve is a bundle of axons. Think of the axons as thin rope fibers and the
nerve as the thick rope itself. Nerves are identified as afferent or efferent. Afferent
nerves move toward an objective. Efferent nerves move away from a source.
The optic nerve is an afferent nerve; it carries visual messages toward the brain.
34 PSYCHOLOGY
On the other hand, when you pick up a pen you are using efferent nerves. Messages
are being carried away from the brain.
(a) When a neuron releases neurotransmitters it is either said to "fire" or to .
(b) Nerves that move away from a source are called .
Answers: (a) depolarize; (b) efferent.
The Nervous System: The Body's Communication
Network
Neurons are not, of course, scattered at random in the body. They are organized.
This organization is called the nervous system. The nervous system is the
body's communication network. Its function is often compared to the country's
telephone system or the Internet. The nervous system allows any part of the
body to be in contact with any other part of the body within a fraction of a
second.
The nervous system has two main divisions. These are the central nervous
system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists
of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the subject of the next section.
Let's turn our attention to the peripheral nervous system.
This peripheral nervous system itself has two divisions. These are the autonomic
nervous system and somatic nervous system. The word autonomic is
similar to the word automatic, and it does in fact have a similar meaning. The autonomic
nervous system is somewhat independent or self-moving. This means it
doesn't always have to have instructions coming from the brain. Some of its activities
are said to be involuntary.
(a) The two main divisions of the nervous system are the and
the .
(b) The two divisions of the peripheral nervous system are the and the
.
Answers: (a) central nervous system; peripheral nervous system; (b) autonomic nervous
system; somatic nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system is involved in the regulation of such bodily
processes as digestion, blood pressure, pulse, breathing, and internal temperature.
This system has two additional divisions. These are the sympathetic division
and the parasympathetic division.
The sympathetic division is active primarily when there is an increase in
The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 35
autonomic activity. Excitement provides an example. When you are excited, your
blood pressure goes up, your pulse increases, and the rate of respiration rises.
These are all due to the activity of the sympathetic division. The sympathetic division
is sometimes compared to the gas pedal on a car; it makes the whole system
go forward with increased speed. (There are exceptions to the generalization
made in this paragraph.)
(a) The two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the and the
.
(b) What division of the autonomic nervous system is active primarily when there is an
increase in autonomic activity?
Answers: (a) sympathetic division; parasympathetic division; (b) The sympathetic
division.
The parasympathetic division is active primarily when there is a decrease in
autonomic activity. Relaxation provides an example. When you are relaxed, your
blood pressure goes down, your pulse decreases, and your respiration rate falls.
The parasympathetic division is sometimes compared to the brakes on a car; they
can be used to make the whole system slow down. (Again, there are exceptions to
the generalization made in this paragraph.)
As you will see in chapter 6, the chapter on learning, classical conditioning
refers primarily to the activity of the autonomic nervous system.
Let's return to the somatic division of the peripheral nervous system. The
Greek word soma means "body." Consequently, the somatic division controls the
actions of the body. When you walk, talk, move your arms, or use your fingers,
the somatic division regulates these actions. As you will see in chapter 6, operant
conditioning refers primarily to the activity of the somatic nervous system.
(a) What division of the autonomic nervous system is active primarily when there is a
decrease in autonomic activity?
(b) The Greek word soma means .
Answers: (a) The parasympathetic division; (b) "body."
The Brain: The CEO of the Organization
The brain is actually a part of the nervous system. As indicated earlier, the brain
and the spinal cord constitute one of the two major divisions of the nervous system—
the central nervous system. Our main concern in this section is with the
brain, not the spinal cord. However, let us note that the spinal cord, protected
by the bones of the spine, is a two-way communication highway. Sensory mes-
36 PSYCHOLOGY
sages from the feet, the hands, and other parts of the body are sent to the brain.
Motor messages from the brain are used to move the legs, the arms, and other
parts of the body. If the spinal cord is damaged, this can greatly impair the individual's
ability to both experience and move the body.
The brain resides at the top of the spinal cord and, as indicated, is the chief
executive officer (CEO) of the nervous system. It is traditional in studying the
brain to describe its structures and their functions. Each structure is given a name
and a location in the brain. Then the purpose of the structure is identified.
Let's start toward the bottom of the brain and work our way up. Immediately
above the spinal cord is the brain stem. It has the obvious function of connecting
the brain to the spinal cord, and may even be thought of as an extension of the
spinal cord. Located within the brain stem is a structure called the reticular activating
system (RAS). It sends forth nerves to the higher levels of the brain. The
RAS functions like both a light switch and a rheostat. When you wake up suddenly,
the RAS has stimulated you to do so. When you fall asleep quickly, the
RAS has also induced this behavior. On the other hand, when you are drowsy, the
RAS is acting like a rheostat. It is reducing the flow of the kind of information
that makes you attentive and alert. Also, you can be overly alert—what people call
"hyper." In this case, the flow of information to the higher levels of the brain is
excessive.
(a) The spinal cord acts as .
(b) What structure acts like both a light switch and a rheostat?
Answers: (a) a two-way communication highway; (b) The reticular activating system.
The medulla is located toward the front of the brain stem. One of its principal
functions is to regulate the respiration rate. The pons, associated with the
medulla, is a bulging structure also located toward the front of the brain stem; it
resides above the medulla. It too is involved in the regulation of breathing. In
addition, it plays a role in the regulation of sleep and attention.
The cerebellum (i.e., "little brain") is located toward the back of the brain
stem. Maintaining your sense of balance and coordinating your muscle movements
are functions of the cerebellum.
The hypothalamus is located just under the thalamus and above the brain
stem. (The prefix hypo means "under" or "beneath." A few paragraphs down you
will find a reference to the thalamus.) The hypothalamus has a number of functions.
Of particular interest is the regulation of biological drives. For example,
both excitatory and inhibitory impulses for hunger arise from the hypothalamus.
One starts eating and then stops eating depending, to some extent, on signals from
the hypothalamus. Freud spoke of a psychological agent called the id, the constellation
of our primal, pleasure-oriented impulses. The hypothalamus is not the
id, because the id is a psychological concept and the hypothalamus is a physiolog-
The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 37
ical structure. Nonetheless, it is correct to say that to a large extent it is the activity
of the hypothalamus that gives rise to the psychological processes Freud associated
with the id.
(a) One of the principal functions of the medulla is to regulate .
(b) The regulation of biological drives is associated to a large extent with what structure?
Answers: (a) respiration rate; (b) The hypothalamus.
The pituitary gland—one of the endocrine glands—is located toward the
front of the hypothalamus. It is usually called the "master gland" of the body.
This is because it plays a role in regulating the action of the other endocrine
glands. This will be discussed in the section on the endocrine system, pages
39–41.
Located just above the hypothalamus is the thalamus. One of the principal
functions of the thalamus is to act as a relay center for the sense organs. For example,
the optic nerves transmit visual information to a center in the thalamus. The
information is then relayed to a higher area in the cerebral cortex.
The cerebral cortex is the highest part of the brain. The word cortex means
"bark" or "covering." The cortex, a large structure, does in fact sit on top of, or
cover, the lower regions of the brain. The cortex has a number of functions. It has
dedicated areas for vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell. It has motor areas
Broca's
area
Cortex
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Medulla
Pons
Pituitary gland
Reticular
activating
system
Cerebellum
Brain stem
Cross section of the brain with selected structures.
38 PSYCHOLOGY
allowing for voluntary movements. It has association areas allowing for learning,
thinking, and memory. There are two speech areas allowing for language comprehension
and language production. For example, Broca's area is involved primarily
in language production. A group of structures in the cortex called the limbic
system play important roles in our motivational and emotional lives. For example,
damage to the limbic system can be associated with anhedonia (or ahedonia),
an inability to experience pleasure.
(a) The "master gland" of the body is the .
(b) One of the principal functions of the thalamus is to act as .
(c) What large structure of the brain is associated with our ability to think?
Answers: (a) pituitary gland; (b) a relay center for the sense organs; (c) The cerebral
cortex.
The Two Hemispheres of the Brain: Does the Right Side
Know What the Left Side Is Doing?
The prior description of the brain was based on a cross-section of the brain associated
with looking at a person's profile. On the other hand, looking at the brain
from above, one discerns two cerebral hemispheres. These two hemispheres are
connected by a structure called the corpus callosum ("thick body"). The function
of the corpus callosum is to provide a way for the two hemispheres to communicate
with each other. In the vast majority of people the corpus callosum is
intact. Consequently, sharp differences between the way the two different hemispheres
work are not usually evident.
However, in a very small number of people the corpus callosum has been cut
as a treatment for intractable epilepsy. It is possible in such patients to study the
different ways the two hemispheres work. It is evident from studies of subjects
with a severed corpus callosum that the right hemisphere mediates nonverbal
patterning—the kind of mental functioning required in drawing, making up a
melody, dancing, and creating visual images. The right hemisphere is sometimes
called the "romantic" hemisphere.
The left hemisphere mediates verbal and mathematical thinking—the kind
of mental functioning required in writing, talking, scientific analysis, working an
algebra problem, and so forth. The left hemisphere is sometimes called the "logical"
hemisphere.
The right side of the brain does know what the left side is doing if the corpus
callosum is intact—as it usually is.
The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 39
(a) What structure connects the two hemispheres of the brain?
(b) What hemisphere of the brain is sometimes called the "romantic" hemisphere?
Answers: (a) The corpus callosum; (b) The right hemisphere.
The Endocrine System: Moods and Your Glands
You have a set of glands in your body that have a lot to do with your moods, your
emotional states, and your behavior in general. Working together, these glands are
called the endocrine system. The glands themselves are called endocrine
glands because they secrete their substances directly into the bloodstream without
ducts. (Endo means "within" or "inside." In contrast, exocrine glands, such
as salivary or digestive glands, secrete their substances "outside" of the bloodstream.)
The substances secreted by the endocrine glands are called hormones.
These, like neurotransmitters, act as chemical messengers.
The pineal gland is a tiny gland located nearly in the center of the brain. It
is called "pineal" because it is shaped something like a pine cone. Of historical
interest is the fact that the philosopher René Descartes suggested, perhaps
because it is small and centered, that the pineal gland is the place where the soul
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Adrenal glands
Kidneys
Pancreas gland
Ovaries (female)
Testes (male)
Gonads
Locations of the endocrine glands.
40 PSYCHOLOGY
interacts with the body. Today's research indicates that the pineal gland secretes a
hormone called melatonin. This hormone plays a role in controlling the biological
timetable for sexual maturation. Another of its functions is to regulate the
sleep cycle.
(a) The endocrine glands secrete their substances (without ducts) directly into the
.
(b) The pineal gland secretes a hormone called .
Answers: (a) bloodstream; (b) melatonin.
The pituitary gland, about the size of a pea, is located in front of the hypothalamus.
As already noted, it is called the "master gland" because it secretes a
group of hormones that affect the action of the other glands. Among these hormones
there are adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), a hormone that
acts on the adrenal glands, thyrotrophin, a hormone that acts on the thyroid
gland, and follicle-stimulating hormone, a hormone that acts on the gonads.
One of the hormones secreted by the pituitary gland is growth hormone
(GH). GH has an effect on growth and stature. People who are abnormally tall
have a pathology of the pituitary gland and are said to suffer from the disease of
giantism.
The thyroid gland is located toward the base and front of the neck. It is a relatively
large gland and is shaped somewhat like a butterfly. In areas of the world
where the soil is deficient in iodine, some individuals develop a disease of the thyroid
gland called goiter. The gland can swell to the size of an orange or larger.
One of the reasons that salt is often iodized is to prevent goiter.
The principal function of thyroxin, the hormone secreted by the thyroid gland,
is to regulate metabolism, the rate at which you burn food. If not enough thyroxin
is secreted, and your metabolic rate is abnormally low, you will tend to gain weight
easily; at a behavioral level you may be sluggish and unenthusiastic. If too much thyroxin
is secreted, and your metabolic rate is abnormally high, you will have difficulty
gaining weight; at a behavioral level you may be impulsive and hyperactive.
(a) What hormone secreted by the pituitary gland is associated with a disease such as
giantism?
(b) The principal function of the hormone thyroxin is to regulate .
Answers: (a) Growth hormone (GH); (b) metabolism.
There are two adrenal glands, and these are located on top of the kidneys.
The adrenal glands produce such hormones as the corticosteroid hormones and
epinephrine. The corticosteroid hormones regulate the way the body utilizes
such substances as glucose, salt, and water during times of stress. Epinephrine
The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 41
induces an increased sense of arousal and excitement. It plays an important role in
the fight-or-flight reaction, an involuntary process in which the body prepares
itself to cope with threatening situations. (The word adrenalin is synonymous
with epinephrine. However, when the word Adrenalin appears in capitalized form,
it refers to a specific drug with a trade name.)
Psychology has given increased attention to the role that the adrenal glands
play in the body's adaptation to stress because of the work of the Canadian
researcher Hans Selye (1907–1982). Using rats as subjects, Selye discovered that
under conditions of chronic stress the body goes through a series of stages,
including resistance and eventual exhaustion, that lead to an early death. The
reaction pattern is called the general adaptation syndrome. Postmortem
examinations revealed that the adrenal glands of the subjects were damaged and
enlarged.
(a) Epinephrine induces an increased sense of .
(b) What reaction pattern is associated with chronic stress?
Answers: (a) arousal and excitement; (b) The general adaptation syndrome.
The pancreas gland is a large gland located under the stomach. One of the
hormones secreted by the pancreas is insulin. Insulin helps to regulate blood
sugar. The disease diabetes is associated with an inadequate insulin production.
The disorder chronic hypoglycemia, or low blood sugar, is, paradoxically,
aggravated when one consumes either too much dietary sugar or too many
refined carbohydrates. A person suffering from low blood sugar finds it difficult to
concentrate, feel energetic, or otherwise function well.
The gonads are the sexual glands. In females the gonads are called the
ovaries. In males the gonads are called the testes. Estrogen is one of the principal
hormones produced by the ovaries. The secondary sexual characteristics in
females, such as minimal facial hair and larger breasts, are determined by estrogen.
Testosterone is one of the principal hormones produced by the testes. The secondary
sexual characteristics in males, such as lack of breast development and the
presence of facial hair, are determined by testosterone. There is also evidence to
suggest that testosterone is associated, particularly in youth, with aggressive behavior.
(It is important to note that both sexes produce estrogen and testosterone;
however, the relative amounts differ.)
(a) Insulin helps to regulate .
(b) Identify a hormone associated principally with the ovaries.
(c) Identify a hormone associated principally with the testes.
Answers: (a) blood sugar; (b) Estrogen; (c) Testosterone.
42 PSYCHOLOGY
SELF-TEST
1. An axon
a. can be found in the cell body of a neuron
b. is a motor neuron
c. sends information in the direction of the cell body
d. sends information away from the cell body
2. Which one of the following is said to be a chemical messenger?
a. A cell nucleus
b. A neurotransmitter
c. A metabolic cell
d. A connector neuron
3. Informally, a neuron is said to "fire." The formal term for "fire" is
a. signal recentering
b. depolarize
c. repolarize
d. adaptation
4. The two main divisions of the nervous system are
a. the brain and the spinal cord
b. the somatic and the parasympathetic divisions
c. the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
d. the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere
5. What structure functions like both a light switch and a rheostat?
a. The medulla
b. The thalamus
c. The reticular activating system
d. The cerebellum
6. The hypothalamus is associated primarily with
a. the regulation of biological drives
b. abstract intelligence
c. the curiosity drive
d. motor coordination
7. The cerebral cortex is associated primarily with
a. the inhibition of respiration
b. the regulation of biological drives
c. primal impulses
d. thinking
8. The right hemisphere of the brain tends to mediate
a. nonverbal patterning
b. verbal thinking
c. mathematical thinking
d. symbolic logic
9. What hormone is associated with the pineal gland?
a. Thyroxin
b. Melatonin
c. Growth hormone
d. Insulin
10. The ovaries belong to what larger general category of endocrine glands?
a. Stress glands
b. Adrenal glands
c. Gonads
d. Pituitary glands
ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST
1-d 2-b 3-b 4-c 5-c 6-a 7-d 8-a 9-b 10-c
ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ
1. True.
2. False. The sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division refer to the two divisions
of the autonomic nervous system. The two divisions of the brain are called the
right hemisphere and the left hemisphere.
3. False. There is only one pituitary gland, and it is located in the brain. The two adrenal
glands are located on top of the kidneys.
4. True.
5. True.
KEY TERMS
The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 43
adrenal glands
adrenalin
adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
afferent nerves
anhedonia (or ahedonia)
association neurons
autonomic nervous system
axon
44 PSYCHOLOGY
Broca's area
central nervous system
cerebellum
cerebral cortex
chronic hypoglycemia
corpus callosum
corticosteroid hormones
dendrite
depolarize
dopamine
efferent nerves
end foot
endocrine glands
endocrine system
epinephrine
estrogen
exocrine glands
fight-or-flight reaction
follicle-stimulating hormone
general adaptation syndrome
giantism
goiter
gonads
growth hormone (GH)
hormones
hypothalamus
id
insulin
left hemisphere
limbic system
medulla
melatonin
metabolism
motor neurons
nerve
nervous system
neuron
neurotransmitter
ovaries
pancreas gland
parasympathetic division
peripheral nervous system
pineal gland
pituitary gland
pons
receptor site
reticular activating system (RAS)
right hemisphere
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
(SSRIs)
sensory neurons
serotonin
soma
somatic nervous system
spinal cord
sympathetic division
synapse
synaptic cleft
testes
testosterone
thalamus
thyroid gland
thyrotrophin
thyroxin
4 Sensation: Studying
the Gateways
of Experience
45
PREVIEW QUIZ
True or False
1. T F The word sensation refers to the raw data of experience.
2. T F The trichromatic theory of color perception hypothesizes that we
have three kinds of cones, differentially sensitive to three wavelengths
of light, in the retina of the eye.
3. T F A sound wave has the remarkable property of being able to travel
through a vacuum.
4. T F The units that make taste possible are clusters of neurons located on
the tongue called taste buds.
5. T F You have no receptor neurons in the joints of your body.
(Answers can be found on page 55.)
The study of sensation—including such processes as seeing and hearing—
grows logically from the study of the biology of behavior. Seeing, for example,
is possible because we have biological structures such as the eye and the
optic nerve. In this chapter we examine how basic sensory impressions
relate to behavior.
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to
• differentiate among sensation, perception, and cognition;
• describe key aspects of the visual process;
• explain the trichromatic theory of color perception;
• describe key aspects of the hearing process;
• identify principal features of the processes associated with taste, the skin senses,
smell, kinesthesis, and the vestibular sense.
A whole industry can sometimes be based on a single sense. The early motion
picture industry appealed primarily to vision. Radio appeals primarily to hearing.
Today's motion pictures and television make a combined appeal to vision and
hearing. Other senses such as taste and smell play important roles in the food
industry and the perfume industry.
It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the senses. They are our gateways
to experience. Without our senses we would be creatures living in solitary
confinement. We wouldn't know the world "out there," the world beyond the
self. Learning would be impossible because, as you will see in chapter 6, the very
definition of learning requires that we be capable of experience. Consequently,
psychology considers it important to study the process of sensation, the basic
process by which we obtain information about external reality.
Here is a useful way to think about the character of conscious experience.
Imagine three ascending steps. The first step is associated with sensation. Sensation
refers to the raw data of experience. Seeing a flash of light, hearing a single
note sounded on a musical instrument, or feeling the touch of a fingertip, are all
examples of simple sensations. Instead of yourself, imagine that an infant only a
few days old is having these sensations. To the extent that they have little organization
and little meaning, they are close to simple sensations.
The second step is associated with perception. Perception refers to organized
experience. If a set of notes sounded on a musical instrument takes on a particular
form, and you hear a melody, you have attained the level of perception. Perception
is explored in chapter 5.
The third step is associated with cognition. Cognition refers to knowing.
Thinking and concept formation are processes associated with cognition. If you
perceive a melody and remember the name of the song, you have attained the
level of cognition. You know what you're listening to. (Note that the familiar
word recognition can be broken down into "re" and "cognition," suggesting that its
root meaning is to "know again.") Cognition is explored in chapter 9.
46 PSYCHOLOGY
(a) The three ascending steps of conscious experience are .
(b) Sensation refers to the .
Answers: (a) sensation, perception, and cognition; (b) raw data of experience.
Vision: Seeing Is Believing
Most people think of vision as the primary sense. We need to see in order to drive,
to read, to look at the people we love, and so forth. If asked what sense they consider
the most important, most students in an introductory psychology class
answer that it is vision.
In order to appreciate the visual process it is necessary first to give some attention
to the stimulus that makes it possible. That stimulus is light. From the point
of view of physics, there are two ways to look at light. It can be said that light consists
of a set of electromagnetic waves. Or it can be said that light consists of a
stream of particles, or quanta, called photons. In either case, light travels at the
same speed—about 186,000 miles per second. For the purposes of psychology, we
will limit our description of light to the electromagnetic wave theory.
An electromagnetic wave, consisting of a system of electrical and magnetic
fields, is a unique kind of wave. It can even travel through a vacuum—without a
medium to carry it. Otherwise, communication with voyagers to the Moon or
with distant space probes would not be possible. Radio waves are one kind of
electromagnetic wave.
(a) If light is looked upon as a stream of particles, or quanta, what are the particles
called?
(b) A unique property of an electromagnetic wave is its ability to travel through
.
Answers: (a) Photons; (b) a vacuum.
The waves to which we give the name "light" are a narrow band of the electromagnetic
spectrum. This spectrum ranges from relatively "long" radio
waves at one end of the spectrum to relatively "short" gamma rays at the other
end. In between the extremes we find the light waves. These range in length,
measured crest to crest, from 750 nanometers to 400 nanometers. (A nanometer
is one billionth of a meter.) The part of the electromagnetic spectrum we can see
is called the visible spectrum. The principal colors of the visible spectrum, also
known as the rainbow, starting at 750 nanometers, are red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, and violet. The colors always appear in the same order either in a
rainbow or when white light is broken up by a prism.
Sensation: Studying the Gateways of Experience 47
Waves a little longer than 750 nanometers are called infra-red rays. Waves a
little shorter than 400 nanometers are called ultra-violet rays. Both of these
kinds of waves are invisible to the naked eye.
(a) The part of the electromagnetic spectrum we see is called the .
(b) Waves 750 nanometers in length are associated with what color?
Answers: (a) visible spectrum; (b) Red.
Light is necessary for vision, but it is not sufficient. In order to see it is necessary
to have a sense organ that can convert light waves into useful neurological
information. This organ is, of course, the eye. In the front of the eye is the
cornea, a kind of window that allows light to enter the eye. Because the cornea
has a convex shape, it also is somewhat responsible for bending light waves and
making them converge on the lens.
The lens is used to focus light waves, and it produces an inverted, or upsidedown,
image on the retina. The retina is a photosensitive neurological structure.
Think of it as a target. The center of the target is called the fovea, and it plays a
dominant role in visual acuity and color vision. The outer rim of the target, the
periphery, plays an important part in signal detection and brightness vision. The
neurons in the retina are called photoreceptors because they are light sensitive.
The optic nerve conveys the retina's activity pattern to the brain.
The two kinds of photoreceptors are the cones and the rods. They have been
given these names because of the shapes of their cell bodies. The cones are
located primarily in the fovea. The rods are located primarily in the periphery. As
already indicated, color vision is associated with the fovea, suggesting that the
cones have a lot to do with this particular quality of sensation.
(a) The retina is a photosensitive .
(b) The two kinds of photoreceptors in the retina are the .
Answers: (a) neurological structure; (b) rods and cones.
A leading theory of color vision is the trichromatic theory. This theory is
also known as the Young-Helmholtz theory in honor of the scientists who first
introduced it. The trichromatic theory hypothesizes that we have three kinds of
cones. These are differentially sensitive to three wavelengths of light: (1) 750
48 PSYCHOLOGY
Violet
Ultraviolet
rays
Infra-red
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 rays
Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red
The visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
nanometers, (2) 500 nanometers, and (3) 400 nanometers. The first wavelength,
750 nanometers, induces the sensation we call "red." The second, 500 nanometers,
induces the sensation we call "green." And 400 nanometers induces the sensation
we call "violet." The language in the preceding sentences has been carefully chosen
in order to make it clear that the "color" is not in the stimulus itself (i.e., a light
wave), but is produced by the firing of a certain kind of photoreceptor.
The trichromatic theory also accounts for the sensation of colors other than the
three primary ones. The sensation of orange, for example, takes place because a wavelength
of light such as 650 nanometers will cause the simulataneous firing of some
neurons that usually fire at 750 nanometers and some that fire at 500 nanometers.
White light is sensed when all of the wavelengths arrive at the retina in a random
or scrambled fashion. This causes the simultaneous firing of all three kinds of
cones. It is often pointed out that the trichromatic theory works very well. It is
the basis upon which color television sets are constructed.
(a) A leading theory of color vision is the .
(b) White light is sensed when all of the wavelengths arrive at the retina in a .
Answers: (a) trichromatic theory; (b) random or scrambled fashion.
However, there are flaws in the trichromatic theory. For example, people who
are red-green blind, lacking the two kinds of required photoreceptors, would not
be predicted to sense yellow—yet they seem to have a normal capacity to sense
yellow. As a consequence, other theories of color perception have been proposed.
They have not received the level of acceptance of the trichromatic theory; but it
is important to recognize that this major theory may explain some, but not all, of
what is involved in the physiology of color vision.
There are three basic sensations associated with vision. First, the sensation of
hue simply indicates, as already described, that we can see a range of colors. Second,
the sensation of brightness indicates that we can see that objects are white
or gray or black. We can also see that they are in low or high illumination. Third,
the sensation of saturation indicates that we can see how richly or deeply a color
seems to soak into an object.
The three basic sensations associated with vision are .
Answer: hue, brightness, and saturation.
Hearing: The Sound of Music
If you enjoy hearing music, you appreciate the importance of the sense of hearing.
Also, a moment's reflection helps us to realize that hearing is the primary way
Sensation: Studying the Gateways of Experience 49
in which we overcome social isolation. It is by talking to each other, a behavior
that requires hearing, that we visit with family and friends. If one cannot hear, it
is important to learn skills such as lip reading and signing.
Like vision, the sense of hearing can be better understood by studying the
stimulus that makes it possible. This stimulus is the sound wave. A sound wave
requires a medium such as air or water. (The word sonar is associated with a sound
wave in water.) Let's give our attention to a sound wave that uses air as its
medium. First, there must be a vibrating source in order to get a sound wave
going. An example of such a source is a guitar string. Another example is a human
vocal cord. The vibrations emanating from the source set up a traveling wave of
compressions, alternating with partial vacuums, in the air. The compressions strike
the eardrum somewhat like a series of hammer blows. The frequency of a sound
wave is measured with a unit called the hertz (Hz). One hertz is equal to one
cycle per second. The greater the number of cycles per second, the higher the
experienced pitch.
The intensity of a sound wave is measured with a unit called the decibel (dB).
The greater the decibel level, the louder the sound.
(a) The unit of measurement called the hertz (Hz) measures .
(b) The unit of measurement called the decibel (dB) measures .
Answers: (a) the frequency of a sound wave; (b) the intensity of a sound wave.
In order to experience the sensation of sound, it is necessary to have a functioning
ear. These are the principal structures and functions of the ear. The
eardrum, already mentioned, is also known as the tympanic membrane. Its
vibrations induce a series of events. The motion of the tympanic membrane is
conveyed to a structure called the oval window. The conveyance of the motion
is made possible by the motion of three linked bones called the malleus ("hammer"),
the incus ("anvil"), and the stapes ("stirrup").
Vibrations of the oval window in turn set up vibrations within a fluid contained
in the cochlea, a bony structure reminiscent of a snail shell. A nervous system
structure within the cochlea called the basilar membrane plays a role in
hearing similar to the role that the retina plays in vision. The auditory nerve
conveys the basilar membrane's activity pattern to the brain.
There are three basic sensations associated with hearing. First, pitch is the
ability to hear sounds ranging from low to high. Second, loudness is associated
with the magnitude of a sound. Third, timbre refers to the quality of a tone. In
general, the quality of a note played on a piano has more timber, or "richness,"
than a note of the same pitch played on a flute.
(a) The eardrum is also known as the .
50 PSYCHOLOGY
(b) What structure plays a similar role in hearing to the role that the retina plays in vision?
(c) The three basic sensations associated with hearing are .
Answers: (a) tympanic membrane; (b) The basilar membrane; (3) pitch, loudness, and
timbre.
Taste: "This Is Too Salty"
The stimuli that control much of the sense of taste are various chemical compounds
such as those associated with salt, sugar, or lemon juice. The units that
make taste possible are clusters of neurons located on the tongue called taste
buds. The taste buds respond in such a way that they produce four basic taste sensations.
These sensations are quite familiar. They are known as sweet, salty, bitter,
and sour.
All tastes and taste names refer to combinations of these sensations in various
patterns. How can there be many flavors if there are only four basic taste sensations?
Think of the four sensations as a kind of alphabet. There are twenty-six letters
in the standard English alphabet. Nonetheless, we have many thousands of
words. Similarly, the four sensations are able to produce many flavors.
Taste buds are gathered in specific areas of the tongue. For example, the taste
buds that produce the sensation of sweetness are located near the tip of the tongue.
It is estimated that we have about 10,000 taste buds.
It should also be noted that the sense of taste interacts with other senses such
as smell, vision, and touch. The aroma of a soup, the look of a steak, and differences
in texture on the tongue all change our taste impressions.
(a) Taste buds, located on the tongue, are .
(b) The four basic taste sensations are .
Answers: (a) clusters of neurons; (b) sweet, salty, bitter, and sour.
Touch: Of Pain and Pressure
It is common to refer to touch as one of the basic senses. It is more accurate, however,
to speak of the skin senses, basic experiences associated with different kinds
of receptor neurons located in the skin. There are four skin senses: (1) light touch,
(2) deep touch, (3) temperature, and (4) pain. The sensation of light touch can
be induced by placing very little pressure on the surface of the skin or by slowly
stroking the skin. You are aware that you are being touched even if your eyes are
Sensation: Studying the Gateways of Experience 51
closed. Neurons located near the surface of the skin are the ones that give us the
sensation of light touch.
Deep touch can be induced by placing substantial pressure on the surface of
the skin. If someone shakes your hand too tightly or grips your arm with force,
you will experience deep touch. Deep touch is also known as the sensation of
pressure. Neurons located well below the surface of the skin are the ones that give
us the sensation of deep touch.
(a) The four skin senses are .
(b) What skin sense can be induced by placing substantial pressure on the surface of the
skin?
Answers: (a) light touch, deep touch, temperature, and pain; (b) Deep touch.
Temperature is induced by variations in the amount of heat being conducted
to or away from the skin. When heat is being conducted toward the skin, we usually
experience an increase in warmth. For example, the surrounding air temperature
might be raised by turning on a furnace, and heat will be conducted toward
the skin. When heat is being conducted away from the skin, we usually experience
an increase in cold. For example, your bare feet will usually feel cold on a tile
surface. This is because the skin of your feet makes such good contact with the
hard surface that heat is carried away from your body. Two basic kinds of neurons
for temperature are "hot" receptors and "cold" receptors.
Pain is a skin sense induced by tissue damage. A hard blow to the body or
being cut by a knife will usually cause pain. Be clear that the kind of pain being
described here is not the only type of pain. But the kind of pain associated with
the skin is called cutaneous pain. Neurons in the skin that can detect tissue damage