Ignore Word Count

Club Atlético Boca Juniors (Spanish pronunciation: [kluβ aˈtletiko ˈβoka ˈʝunjoɾs]) is an Argentine sports club headquartered in La Boca, a neighbourhood of Buenos Aires. The club is mostly known for its professional football team which, since its promotion in 1913, has always played in the Argentine Primera División. The team has won 74 official titles, the most by any Argentine club.[1][2] National titles won by Boca Juniors include 35 Primera División championships,[3][4] and 17 domestic cups.[5] Boca Juniors also owns an honorary title awarded by the Argentine Football Association for their successful tour of Europe in 1925.[6][7]

Internationally, Boca Juniors has won a total of 22 international titles,[8][9][10] with 18 organised by CONMEBOL[11] and the rest organised jointly by the Argentine and Uruguayan Associations. Consequently, Boca is ranked third in the world in terms of number of complete international titles, after Real Madrid (28) and Egyptian side Al Ahly (25).[12] Boca Juniors' international achievements also include Tie Cup,[13] Copa de Honor Cousenier,[14] and Copa Escobar-Gerona,[15] organized jointly by AFA and AUF together.

Their success usually has the Boca Juniors ranked among the IFFHS's Club World Ranking Top 25, which they have reached the top position six times (mostly during the coaching tenure of Carlos Bianchi).[16] Boca was named by the IFFHS as the top South American club of the first decade of the 21st century (2001–2010).[17] It was designated by FIFA as the twelfth best Club of the Century, in December 2000, occupying the same place as Liverpool of England, Inter of Italy, or Benfica of Portugal, among others. Boca Juniors is also known to be one of the most popular football clubs in Argentina, along with River Plate.[18][19]

Boca Juniors has always had a fierce rivalry with River Plate. Matches between them are known as the Superclásico, and are one of the most heated rivalries in Argentina and the world, as both clubs are the two most popular in the country. Boca's home stadium is Estadio Alberto J. Armando, which is colloquially known as La Bombonera. The youth academy has produced many Argentine internationals such as Oscar Ruggeri, Sebastián Battaglia, Nicolás Burdisso, Carlos Tevez, Éver Banega, Fernando Gago, Leandro Paredes and Nahuel Molina, who have played or are playing for top European clubs.

In addition to men's football, Boca Juniors has professional women's football and basketball teams. Other (amateur) activities held in the club are: bocce, boxing, chess, field hockey, futsal, artistic and rhythmic gymnastics, handball, martial arts (judo, karate and taekwondo), swimming, volleyball, weightlifting and wrestling.[20] As of January 2023, Boca Juniors ranked first among the clubs with the most members in Argentina, with 315,879.[21][22]

History[edit]

Main article: History of Boca Juniors

Further information: List of Boca Juniors seasons and Boca Juniors in international football competitions

The first recorded photo of Boca Juniors taken in 1906, after winning the Liga Central championship

On 3 April 1905, a group of Greek and Italian boys (more specifically from Genoa) met in order to find a club. The house where the meeting was arranged was Esteban Baglietto's and the other four people who attended were Alfredo Scarpatti, Santiago Sana and brothers Ioannis (Juan) and Theodoros (Teodoro) Farengas from Chios and Konstantinos Karoulias from Samos.[23] Other important founding members include Arturo Penney, Marcelino Vergara, Luis Cerezo, Adolfo Taggio, Giovanelli, Donato Abbatángelo, and Bertolini.

In 1913, Boca was promoted to Primera División after some previous failed attempts. This was possible when the Argentine Association decided to increase the number of teams in the league from 6 to 15.[24]

In 1925, Boca made its first trip to Europe to play in Spain, Germany and France. The squad played a total of 19 games, winning 15 of them. For that reason Boca was declared "Campeón de Honor" (Champion of Honour) by the Association.

During successive years, Boca consolidated as one of the most popular teams of Argentina, with a huge number of fans not only in the country but worldwide. The club is one of the most successful teams in Argentine football, having won 47 domestic titles (34 league titles and 13 national cups). At international level, Boca Juniors have won 22 titles, with 18 competitions organised by CONMEBOL and four by the Argentine and Uruguayan Associations together.

Kit and badge[edit]

According to the club's official site, the original jersey colour was a white shirt with thin black vertical stripes, being then replaced by a light blue shirt and then another striped jersey before adopting the definitive blue and gold.[25] Nevertheless, another version states that Boca Juniors' first jersey was pink, although it has been questioned by some journalists and historians who state that Boca, most probably, never wore a pink jersey, by pointing out the lack of any solid evidence and how this version stems from, and is only supported on, flawed testimonies.[26]

Legend has it that in 1906, Boca played Nottingham de Almagro. Both teams wore such similar shirts that the match was played to decide which team would get to keep it. Boca lost, and decided to adopt the colors of the flag of the first boat to sail into the port at La Boca. This proved to be a Swedish ship, therefore the yellow and blue of the Swedish flag were adopted as the new team colours.[27] The first version had a yellow diagonal band, which was later changed to a horizontal stripe.[25]

Through Boca Juniors history, the club has worn some alternate "rare" models, such as the AC Milan shirt in a match versus Universidad de Chile (whose uniform was also blue) in the 1963 Copa Libertadores.[28] When Nike became official kit provider in 1996, the first model by the company introduced two thin white stripes surrounding the gold band, causing some controversy.[29][30] The brand also introduced a silver jersey designed exclusively for the 1998 Copa Mercosur. For the 100th anniversary of the club, Nike launched commemorative editions of several models worn by the club since its foundation, including a version of the 1907 shirt with the diagonal sash, which was worn in two matches during the 2005 Torneo de Verano (Summer Championship).[31] Other models were a black and white striped jersey (similar to Juventus FC)[32] and a purple model,[33] worn in the 2012 and 2013 "Torneos de Verano," respectively.

Nevertheless, no shirt caused more controversy than the pink model released as the away jersey for the 2013–14 season, which was widely rejected by the fans.[34] Because of that, the introduction of this model (to be initially worn v. Rosario Central) was delayed until the last fixture when Boca played Gimnasia y Esgrima (LP).[35][36] As a replacement for the pink model, Nike designed a fluorescent yellow shirt launched that same season.[37][38]

In 2016, the club wore a black jersey for the first time in its history, originally launched as the third kit.[39] Although the President of the club, Daniel Angelici, had stated that the black kit would never be worn,[40] the kit debuted in a match v. Tigre, only four days after the announcement.[41]

Adidas is the club's current kit supplier since January 2020.[42] The agreement (which will remain in force until 2029) was signed for US $10,069,000 plus 40% in royalties per year for the club.[43]

Kit evolution[edit]

Uniforms worn by the team through its history:

1905 [note1 1]

1905–06

1906–07 [note1 2]

1907–12 [note1 3]

1913–present

Notes

^ Some sources state the first shirt was pink, as so did the club itself,[44] although further revisions established the striped black and white as the first shirt adopted by the club.[25] Nike released some versions based on this model, first in 2005 (although only for sale at stores)[45] and then in 2012, although this model was only worn during the Torneo de Verano.[46]

^ A similar model was used as the alternate kit in the 2006–07 season, 100 years after it was worn by the first time.

^ According to photographic document of those times, the diagonal sash was displayed in both ways, from left to right and vice versa.

Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors[edit]

Some jerseys exhibited at "The Passion for Boca Juniors Museum".

The first jerseys used by the team in the 1900s.

Period

Kit Manufacturer

Shirt Sponsors

1980–83

Adidas

–

1983

Vinos Maravilla

1984

Dekalb

1985

None

1986–88

Fate

1989–93

FIAT

1993–96

Olan

Parmalat

1996

Topper [n 1]

Quilmes

1996–01

Nike

2001–03

Pepsi

2003–04

Pepsi & Goodyear

2004–05

Red Megatone & Goodyear

2006

Megatone & Goodyear

2007–09

Megatone & Unicef

2009–11

LG & Total

2012–14

BBVA & Total[48][49]

2014–16

BBVA & Citroën

2016–18

BBVA & Huawei

2018–19

Qatar Airways & Axion

2020–

Adidas

Notes

^ After Olan was taken over by Topper, the brand (then owned by Alpargatas) was the kit suppier just for one month, until the contract with Nike came into force in September 1996.[47]

Badge[edit]

The club has had five different designs for its badge during its history, although its outline has remained unchanged through most of its history. The first known emblem dates from 1911, appearing on club's letterhead papers. In October 1932, the club stated that one star would be added to the badge for each Primera División title won.[50] Nevertheless, the stars would not appear until 1943, on a Report and Balance Sheet.[51][50]

A version with laurel leaves appeared on a magazine in 1955 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the club,[51] although the club never used it officially.[50]

The emblem with the stars was rules in 1932 but it has regularly appeared on Boca Juniors uniforms since 1993.[51]

In 1996, the Ronald Shakespear Studio introduced a new badge –with the horizontal band suppressed– as part of a visual identity for the club. The new Boca Juniors image also featured new typography and style.[52][53]

1911–14

1915–32

1925–26 [note6 1]

1932–96 [note6 2]

1996–present

Notes

^ Used only in report and balance sheets and member cards. It is not listed as official on club's website.[54]

^ In 1932, the club stated that the badge should include one star per title won to date. Nevertheless, the stars were not included until 1943.[50]

Stadium[edit]

Main article: La Bombonera

Official grandstand of Estadio Ministro Brin y Senguel, where Boca Juniors played from 1916 to 1924

The Boca Juniors stadium in Brandsen and Del Crucero, inaugurated in 1924. It was later demolished to build La Bombonera, in the same place

Boca Juniors used several locations before settling on their current ground on Brandsen. Club's first ground was in Dársena Sur[55] of the old Buenos Aires port (currently Puerto Madero) but it was vacated in 1907 as it failed to meet the minimum league requirements. Boca Juniors then used three grounds in the Isla Demarchi area between 1908 and 1912.[56][57] In the first year in the Primera Division (1913) the club hadn't an own stadium and played the home games in the pitches of the other teams, likely in Estudiantes de Buenos Aires in Palermo (on Figueroa Alcorta y Dorrego), but also in Avellaneda (first official derby against the River).[58] Between 1914 and 1915, the club moved away from La Boca for the second time in its history (beyond the 1913), moving to Wilde in the Avellaneda Partido of the Greater Buenos Aires but a relatively poor season[59] and poor attendances in 1915 forced the club to move back to La Boca.

On 25 May 1916, Boca Juniors opened its new stadium at the intersection of Ministro Brin and Senguel streets, playing there until 1924 when the club moved to Brandsen and Del Crucero (Del Valle Iberlucea nowadays) streets, to build a new stadium there, which lasted until 1938 when the club decided to build a totally new venue, made of concrete grandstand instead of wood.[60]

Building of Boca Juniors' current stadium began in 1938, under the supervision of Engineer José L. Delpini. Boca played its home matches in Ferro Carril Oeste's Estadio Ricardo Etcheverry in Caballito until it was completed on 25 May 1940.[57] A third level was added in 1953, originating then its nickname La Bombonera ('The Chocolate Box').[61] The stand opposite the Casa Amarilla railway platforms remained mostly undeveloped until 1996, when it was upgraded with new balconies and quite expensive VIP boxes. Three sides of the Bombonera are thus made up of traditional sloping stadium stands, but the fourth side was built vertically, with several seating areas stacked one on top of the other, the only way that makes it stand into the club premises.

La Bombonera is known for vibrating when Boca fans (La 12) jump in rhythm; in particular, the unique vertical side will sway slightly, leading to the phrase, "La Bombonera no tiembla. Late" (The Bombonera does not tremble. It beats)[62][63]

La Bombonera currently has a capacity of around 54,000. The club's popularity make tickets hard to come by, especially for the Superclásico game against River Plate.[64] There are further improvements planned for the stadium, including measures to ease crowd congestion, use of new technology and improved corporate facilities.[65]

Apart from the venues listed, Boca Juniors also played its home games at Estudiantes de Buenos Aires's stadium (in 1913, then located on Figueroa Alcorta Avenue)[66] and Ferro Carril Oeste stadium (1938–40, while La Bombonera was under construction).[67]

List of Boca Juniors venues

Field / Venue

District

Period

Dársena Sud [note3 1]

La Boca

1905–07

Isla Demarchi [56][69]

Puerto Madero

1908–12

Wilde [note3 2]

Wilde

1914–15

Ministro Brin y Senguel

La Boca

1916–24

Brandsen y Del Crucero [note3 3]

1924–38

La Bombonera [note3 4]

1940–present

Notes

^ Located on Pedro de Mendoza, Colorado (today A. Caffarena), Sengüel (B. Pérez Galdós) and Gaboto,[68] where the "Usina del Arte" is placed nowadays.

^ Located behind "Carboneras Wilson".[69]

^ Del Crucero was later renamed "Del Valle Iberlucea".

^ Official name: "Alberto J. Armando".

Supporters[edit]

Boca Juniors' supporters displaying their flags at La Bombonera (north side), 2009

Boca Juniors is traditionally regarded as the club of Argentina's working class, in contrast with the supposedly more upper-class base of cross-town arch rival Club Atlético River Plate.[70]

Boca Juniors claims to be the club of "half plus one" (la mitad más uno) of Argentina's population, but a 2006 survey placed its following at 40%,[18][19] still the largest share. They have the highest number of fans, as judged by percentage in their country.

The Boca-River Superclásico rivalry is one of the most thrilling derbies in the world.[71] Out of their 338 previous meetings, Boca have won 126, River have won 107 and there have been 105 draws.[72] After each match (except draws), street signs cover Buenos Aires at fans' own expense, "ribbing" the losing side with humorous posters. This has become part of Buenos Aires culture ever since a Boca winning streak in the 1990s.

In 1975, a film (La Raulito) was made about the life of Mary Esher Duffau, known as La Raulito, a well-known Boca Juniors fan. She died at the age of 74 on 30 April 2008, the same day Boca Juniors played a Copa Libertadores match against Brazilian club, Cruzeiro Esporte Clube with the players and fans observing a minute's silence in her memory.[73]

Nicknames[edit]

Boca Juniors supporters during a night Copa Libertadores game v. Pumas

Boca fans are known as Los Xeneizes (the Genoese) after the Genoese immigrants who founded the team and lived in La Boca in the early 20th century.[74]

Many rival fans in Argentina refer to the Boca Juniors' fans as Los Bosteros (the manure handlers), originating from the horse manure used in the brick factory which occupied the ground where La Bombonera stands. Originally an insult used by rivals, Boca fans are now proud of it.[75]

Reflecting the team's colors, Boca's shirt is also called la azul y oro (the blue and gold).[76]

There is also a society which dedicates all of its activities to supporting the team known as la número 12 or la doce (player number doce or 12, meaning "the 12th player")[77] "La doce" is a criminal organization similar to other "barra brava" gangs associated with football clubs in Argentina.[78] Illegal activities by La doce include assault, drug sales and trafficking, extortion, and murder.[79] La doce finances its activities by selling parking, reselling club tickets as well as extorting commission from the sale of players. La doce also extorts Boca Juniors for transportation to domestic and international events as well as their means of financing their activities. If their demands are not met they threaten violence at home matches or to take down club officials.[80]

The naming of "La 12" (the twelfth player), by which Boca Juniors' fans became known, dates back to the year 1925, during the European tour they made that year. At that time, the team was accompanied by a Boca fan called Victoriano Caffarena, who belonged to a wealthy family and funded part of the tour. During that tour he helped the team in everything, thus establishing a strong relationship with the players, so they named him "Player No. 12". When they returned to Argentina, Caffarena was as well known as the players themselves. Nowadays, this nickname is used primarily to name their group of supporters, known as "La 12".[81]

International[edit]

Peñas (fan clubs) exist in a number of Argentine cities and abroad in countries such as Russia, Ukraine,[82] Spain,[83] Israel[84] and Japan.[85] Boca Juniors are particularly popular in Japan because of the club's success in recent years[when?] at the Intercontinental Cup held in Japan. All over the world, fans are drawn to Boca by the club's international titles, and by the success of Boca players who went on to play in European football such as Hugo Ibarra, Rodolfo Arruabarrena, Diego Cagna, Enzo Ferrero, Roberto Abbondanzieri, Nicolás Burdisso, Fernando Gago, Diego Maradona, Claudio Caniggia, Gabriel Batistuta, Juan Román Riquelme and Carlos Tevez.

Boca have fans throughout Latin America and also in parts of the United States where there has been Latin immigration and where in July 2007, after the club had toured pre-season, it was reported that the club were considering the possibility of creating a Boca Juniors USA team to compete in Major League Soccer.[86]

Rivalries[edit]

Main article: Superclásico

Boca Juniors has had a long-standing rivalry with River Plate. The Superclásico is known worldwide as one of world football's fiercest and most important rivalries.[87] It is particularly noted for the passion of the fans, the stands of both teams feature fireworks, coloured confetti, flags and rolls of paper. Both sets of supporters sing passionate songs (often based on popular Argentine rock band tunes) against their rivals, and the stadiums are known to bounce with the simultaneous jumping of the fans. Sometimes the games have been known to end in riots between the hardest supporters of both sides or against the police. The English newspaper The Observer put the Superclásico (played at La Bombonera) at the top of their list of 50 sporting things you must do before you die.[88]

The two clubs both have origins in the poor riverside area of Buenos Aires known as La Boca. River however moved to the more affluent district of Núñez in the north of the city in 1923.

Boca Juniors and River Plate have played 338 games all time against each other, with Boca winning 126, River winning 107 and 105 draws. In the First Division Professional Era the two clubs have played 198 games with Boca winning 72, River 66 and 60 draws.[89]

This intense rivalry has not stopped players from playing for both clubs, most notably José Manuel Moreno, Hugo Orlando Gatti, Alberto Tarantini, Oscar Ruggeri, Julio Olarticoechea, Carlos Tapia, Gabriel Batistuta and Claudio Caniggia.

Players[edit]

For a list of all former and current Boca Juniors players with a Wikipedia article, see Category:Boca Juniors footballers.

Current squad[edit]

As of 5 February 2023 [90]

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

No.

Pos.

Nation

Player

1

GK

ARG

Sergio Romero

2

DF

ARG

Facundo Roncaglia

3

DF

ARG

Agustín Sández

4

DF

ARG

Nicolás Figal

5

MF

ARG

Alan Varela

6

DF

ARG

Marcos Rojo (captain)

7

FW

ARG

Exequiel Zeballos

8

MF

ARG

Guillermo Fernández

9

FW

ARG

Darío Benedetto

10

MF

PAR

Óscar Romero

11

MF

ARG

Martín Payero (on loan from Middlesbrough)

12

GK

ARG

Leandro Brey

13

GK

ARG

Javier García

14

MF

ARG

Esteban Rolón

15

DF

ARG

Nicolás Valentini

No.

Pos.

Nation

Player

16

FW

URU

Miguel Merentiel (on loan from Palmeiras)

17

DF

PER

Luis Advíncula

18

DF

COL

Frank Fabra

20

MF

ARG

Juan Edgardo Ramírez

21

MF

ARG

Ezequiel Fernández

22

FW

COL

Sebastián Villa

23

MF

ARG

Diego González

25

DF

PAR

Bruno Valdez

29

FW

ARM

Norberto Briasco

33

FW

ARG

Nicolás Orsini

36

MF

ARG

Cristian Medina

38

FW

ARG

Luis Vázquez

39

DF

ARG

Gabriel Aranda

41

FW

ARG

Luca Langoni

57

DF

ARG

Marcelo Weigandt

Other players under contract[edit]

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

No.

Pos.

Nation

Player

32

MF

ARG

Agustín Almendra

—

DF

ARG

Balthazar Bernardi

—

MF

ARG

Gabriel Vega

No.

Pos.

Nation

Player

—

FW

ARG

Israel Escalante

—

FW

VEN

Jan Hurtado

Out on loan[edit]

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

No.

Pos.

Nation

Player

—

GK

ARG

Agustín Lastra (at Aldosivi until 31 December 2023)

—

GK

ARG

Agustín Rossi (at Al Nassr until 30 June 2023)

—

MF

COL

Jorman Campuzano (at Giresunspor until 30 June 2023)

—

MF

ARG

Gonzalo Maroni (at San Lorenzo until 31 December 2023)

No.

Pos.

Nation

Player

—

MF

ARG

Aaron Molinas (at Tigre until 31 December 2023)

—

FW

ARG

Agustín Obando (at Tigre until 31 December 2023)

—

FW

ITA

Mateo Retegui (at Tigre until 31 December 2023)

Reserves and Academy[edit]

For the reserve and academy squads, see Boca Juniors Reserves and Academy

Records[edit]

Most goals[edit]

Main article: Boca Juniors top scorers

Martín Palermo, Boca Juniors' all-time top goalscorer

No.

Player

Pos.

Tenure

Goals

1

Martín Palermo

FW

1997–01, 2004–11

236

2

Roberto Cherro

FW

1926–38

223

3

Francisco Varallo

FW

1931–39

194

4

Domingo Tarasconi

FW

1922–32

192

5

Jaime Sarlanga

FW

1940–48

129

6

Mario Boyé

FW

1941–49, 1955

123

7

Delfín Benítez Cáceres

FW

1932–38

114

8

Pío Corcuera

FW

1941–48

97

9

Pedro Calomino

FW

1911–13, 1915–24

96

10

Carlos Tevez

FW

2001–04, 2015–16, 2018–21

94

Last updated on: 22 Sep 2021 – Los 10 máximos goleadores at Sports.es

Most appearances[edit]

Roberto Mouzo, Boca Juniors' most capped player

No

Player

Position

Tenure

App.

1

Roberto Mouzo

DF

1971–84

426

2

Hugo Gatti

GK

1976–88

417

3

Silvio Marzolini

DF

1960–72

408

4

Martín Palermo

FW

1997–2001, 2004–11

404

5

Carlos Navarro Montoya

GK

1988–96

400

6

Juan Román Riquelme

MF

1996–2002, 2007–14

388

7

Antonio Rattín

MF

1956–70

382

8

Ernesto Lazzatti

MF

1934–47

379

9

Rubén Suñé

MF

1967–72, 1976–80

377

10

Natalio Pescia

MF

1942–56

365

Last updated on: 6 July 2016 – Top 10 most appearances of all time at historiadeboca.com.ar

Notable players[edit]

This section lists players who have appeared in least 100 matches[91] or scored at least 35 goals[92] for the club.

1905–1930s[edit]

Máximo Pieralini (1909–18)[93]

Francisco Taggino (1910–15)[94]

Pedro Calomino (1911–13; 1915–24)

Enrique Bertolini (1912–23)[95]

Alfredo Elli (1916–28)[96]

Alfredo Garasini (1916–28)

Américo Tesoriere (1916–27)

Pablo Bozzo (1918–23)[97]

Mario Busso (1918–27)[98]

Antonio Cerroti (1920–29)[99]

Ramón Muttis (1923–32)

Ludovico Bidoglio (1922–31)

Ángel Médici (1922–31)

Domingo Tarasconi (1922–32)

Roberto Cherro (1926–35)

Mario Evaristo (1926–31)

Estaban Kuko (1926–33)[100]

Gerardo Moreyras (1927–33)[101]

Donato Penella (1928–32)[102]

Antonio Alberino (1929–34)

Pedro Arico Suárez (1929–42)

1930s–1970s[edit]

Francisco Varallo (1931–39)

Delfín Benítez Cáceres (1932–38)

Juan Yustrich (1932–37)

José Manuel Marante (1934–38; 1940–50)[103]

Ernesto Lazzatti (1934–47)

Víctor Valussi (1935–36; 1938–45)

Juan Alberto Estrada (1938–43)

Claudio Vacca (1938–40; 1942–50)

Segundo Gregorio Ibáñez (1939–42)[104]

Jaime Sarlanga (1940–48)

Mario Boyé (1941–49; 1955)

Pío Corcuera (1941–48)

Carlos Sosa (1941–51)

Natalio Pescia (1942–56)

Severino Varela (1943–45)

Obdulio Diano (1944–53)

Rodolfo Dezorzi (1945–48)[105]

Héctor Raúl Otero (1948–56)[106]

Marcos Busico (1949–54)[107]

Herminio Antonio González (1949–54; 1956–59)[108]

Juan Carlos Colman (1950–57)[109]

José Borello (1951–58)

Federico Roberto Edwards (1951–59)[110]

Juan Francisco Lombardo (1952–60)

Eliseo Mouriño (1953–60)

Julio Musimessi (1953–59)

Antonio Rattín (1956–70)

Juan José Rodríguez (1956–62; 1964)[111]

Osvaldo Nardiello (1958–62)[112]

Ernesto Grillo (1960–66)

Silvio Marzolini (1960–72)

Antonio Roma (1960–72)

Heleno de Freitas (1948–49)

Paulo Valentim (1960–64)

Almir Pernambuquinho (1961–62)

Orlando (1961–65)

Alberto Mario González (1962–68)

Norberto Menéndez (1962–67)

José María Silvero (1962–66)

Carmelo Simeone (1962–67)

Ángel Clemente Rojas (1963–71)

Alcides Silveira (1963–68)

Óscar Pianetti (1964–71)

Alfredo Rojas (1964–68)

Norberto Madurga (1966–71)

Nicolás Novello (1966–72; 1974)

Armando Ovide (1966–76)[113]

Ramón Héctor Ponce (1966–74)

Miguel Nicolau (1967–72; 1974–75)[114]

Rubén Omar Sánchez (1967–75)[115]

Rubén Suñé (1967–72; 1976–80)

Julio Meléndez (1968–72)

Roberto Rogel (1968–75)[116]

Jorge Coch (1969–71; 1980)[117]

Orlando José Medina (1969–72)[118]

Rubén Peracca (1969–73)[119]

1970s–1990s[edit]

Hugo Curioni (1970–73)

Enzo Ferrero (1971–75)

Roberto Mouzo (1971–84)

Osvaldo Potente (1971–75; 1979–80)

Jorge José Benítez (1973–83)

Vicente Pernía (1973–81)

Alberto Tarantini (1973–77)

Marcelo Trobbiani (1973–76; 1981–82)

Carlos García Cambón (1974–77)

Abel Alves (1975–83)[120]

Darío Felman (1975–78)

Hugo Gatti (1976–88)

Ernesto Mastrangelo (1976–81)

Jorge Ribolzi (1976–78, 1980–81)

Francisco Sá (1976–81)

José María Suárez (1976–82)[121]

Carlos Veglio (1976–78; 1980)

Mario Zanabria (1976–80)

Hugo Alves (1977–84)[122]

Hugo Perotti (1977–82; 1982–84)[123]

Carlos Héctor Córdoba (1978–84)[124]

Ricardo Gareca (1978–80; 1982–84)

Oscar Ruggeri (1980–84)

Ariel Krasouski (1981–85; 1986–88)

Diego Maradona (1981–82; 1995–97)

Roberto Passucci (1981–86)[125]

Fabián Carrizo (1983–90; 1994–96)[126]

Ivar Gerardo Stafuza (1983–91)[127]

Luis Abramovich (1985–92)

Alfredo Graciani (1985–91; 1993–94)

Enrique Hrabina (1985–91)[128]

Carlos Daniel Tapia (1985–94)

Jorge Comas (1986–89)

José Luis Cuciuffo (1987–90)

Diego Latorre (1987–92; 1996–98)

José Luis Villarreal (1987–93)

Carlos Navarro Montoya (1988–96)

Walter Pico (1988–92; 1994–96)[129]

Juan Simón (1988–94)

Diego Soñora (1988–95)

Blas Giunta (1989–93; 1995–97)

Víctor Hugo Marchesini (1989–93)

1990s–2000s[edit]

Carlos Daniel Moyá (1990–94)[130]

Luis Carranza (1992–95)

Carlos Mac Allister (1992–96)

Alberto Márcico (1992–95)

Sergio Martínez (1992–97)

Rodolfo Arruabarrena (1993–00)

Néstor Fabbri (1994–98)

Claudio Paul Caniggia (1995–98)

Diego Cagna (1995–98; 2003–05)

Juan Román Riquelme (1995–02; 2007–14)

Aníbal Matellán (1996–01; 2004–05)

Roberto Abbondanzieri (1997–06; 2009–10)

Guillermo Barros Schelotto (1997–07)

José Basualdo (1997; 1998–00)

Jorge Bermúdez (1997–02)

Óscar Córdoba (1997–01)

Martín Palermo (1997–00; 2004–11)

Walter Samuel (1997–00)

Cristian Traverso (1997–02; 2004–05)

Antonio Barijho (1998–02; 2003–04)

Mauricio Serna (1998–02)

Hugo Ibarra (1998–01; 2002–03; 2007–10)

Sebastián Battaglia (1998–03; 2005–2013)

Nicolás Burdisso (1999–04)

2000s–[edit]

Marcelo Delgado (2000–03; 2005–06)

José María Calvo (2000–06; 2008–2011)

Clemente Rodríguez (2001–04; 2007; 2010–13)

Rolando Schiavi (2001–05; 2011–12)

Carlos Tevez (2001–04; 2015–16; 2018–2021)

Raúl Alfredo Cascini (2002–05)

Pablo Ledesma (2003—08; 2012–14)

Fabián Vargas (2003–06; 2007–09)

Neri Cardozo (2004–08)

Fernando Gago (2004–07; 2013–18)

Claudio Morel Rodríguez (2004–10)

Cristian Chávez (2005–2013)

Daniel Díaz (2005–07; 2013–16)

Rodrigo Palacio (2005–09)

Pablo Mouche (2006–12)

Lucas Viatri (2007–14)

Nicolás Colazo (2008–16)

Cristian Erbes (2009–16)

Gary Medel (2009–2011)

Juan Manuel Insaurralde (2010–12; 2016–18)

Juan Manuel Sánchez Miño (2010–14)

Walter Erviti (2011–13)

Agustín Orion (2011–16)

Darío Benedetto (2016–19) (2022–)

FIFA World Cup participants[edit]

List of players that were called up for a FIFA World Cup while playing for Boca Juniors. In brackets, the tournament played:

Roberto Cherro (1930)

Mario Evaristo (1930)

Ramón Muttis (1930)

Arico Suárez (1930)

Juan Francisco Lombardo (1958)

Julio Musimessi (1958)

Federico Edwards (1958)

Eliseo Mouriño (1958)

Alberto Mario González (1962, 1966)

Silvio Marzolini (1962, 1966)

Antonio Rattín (1962, 1966)

Antonio Roma (1962, 1966)

Alfredo Rojas (1966)

Carmelo Simeone (1966)

Diego Maradona (1982)

Julio Olarticoechea (1986)

Carlos Tapia (1986)

Juan Simon (1990)

Alejandro Mancuso (1994)

Jorge Bermúdez (1998)

Oscar Córdoba (1998)

Mauricio Serna (1998)

Roberto Abbondanzieri (2006)

Rodrigo Palacio (2006)

Juan Roman Riquelme (2006)

Gary Medel (2010)

Claudio Morel Rodríguez (2010)

Martín Palermo (2010)

Fernando Gago (2014)

Agustín Orión (2014)

Wílmar Barrios (2018)

Nahitan Nandez (2018)

Cristian Pavón (2018)

Coaches[edit]

Main article: List of Boca Juniors head coaches

The first Boca Juniors coach recorded is Mario Fortunato, who had been player before becoming coach of the team. Fortunato led Boca to win a total of five titles (4 league in 1930, 1931, 1934 and 1935) and one National cup (Copa de Competencia Británica in 1946).[131] He had three tenures on the club, coaching Boca Juniors in 1930–1936, 1946 and 1956.

Carlos Bianchi is the most successful coach in Boca Juniors' history, having won nine titles, including Aperturas in 1998, 2000 and 2003, the 1999 Clausura, the Copa Libertadores in 2000, 2001 and 2003, and the Intercontinental Cup in 2000 and 2003.

Juan Carlos Lorenzo (1976–79, 1987), El Toto, won five titles with the team, including the Copa Libertadores in 1977 and 1978, the Intercontinental Cup in 1977, and the Metropolitano and Nacional in 1976.

Alfio Basile also won 5 titles along with Mario Fortunato and Toto Lorenzo. With Basile, Boca won two domestic titles, 2005 Apertura and 2006 Clausura and three international (2005 Copa Sudamericana, 2005 and 2006 Recopa Sudamericana), all of them won within two years.

Miguel Ángel Russo was hired as Ricardo Lavolpe's replacement. Under his coaching Boca Juniors won the 2007 Copa Libertadores with a 5–0 overall rout of Brazilian Grêmio.

Julio César Falcioni led the team to the 2011 Apertura championship, which Boca won unbeaten with only seven goals conceded in 19 rounds. With Falcioni as coach, Boca also won the 2011–12 Copa Argentina.

Institutional[edit]

Main article: List of Boca Juniors chairmen

Executive board[edit]

Jorge Amor Ameal is the current President of Boca juniors since December 2019, when he was elected over Christian Gribaudo, getting more than 51% of the votes (a record of 38,000 members went to the club to vote). Ameal returned to the presidency of the club after his first tenure in 2008–11, when he succeeded Pedro Pompilio after his sudden death.[132]

Apart from Ameal, the Boca Juniors' Executive Board consists of the following members:[133]

1st Vice-president: Juan Román Riquelme [note3 1]

General Secretary: Ricardo Rosica

Treasurer: Carlos Montero

Staff[edit]

Presidents of Boca Juniors sections:[133]

Football: Juan Román Riquelme

Basketball: Alejandro Desimone

Amateur Sports: Martín Mendiguren

Culture: Christian Debortoli

Notes

^ Businessman Mario Pergolini was 1st. Vice-president from 2019 to 2021, when he resigned. 2nd. vice-president Roberto Digón died of covid-19 in February 2022.[134]

Honours[edit]

Senior titles[edit]

Keys

Record

(s) Shared record

Type

Competition

Titles

Winning years

National

(League)

Primera División

35

1919, 1920, 1923, 1924, 1926, 1930, 1931 LAF, 1934 LAF, 1935, 1940, 1943, 1944, 1954, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1969 Nacional, 1970 Nacional, 1976 Metropolitano, 1976 Nacional, 1981 Metropolitano, 1992 Apertura, 1998 Apertura, 1999 Clausura, 2000 Apertura, 2003 Apertura, 2005 Apertura, 2006 Clausura, 2008 Apertura, 2011 Apertura, 2015, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2019–20, 2022

National

(Cups)

Copa Argentina

4

1969, 2012, 2015, 2019–20[135]

Supercopa Argentina

2(s)

2018, 2022

Copa de la Liga Profesional

2

2020, 2022

Copa Jockey Club

2

1919, 1925[135]

Copa Ibarguren

5(s)

1919, 1923, 1924, 1940, 1944[135]

Copa Estímulo

1(s)

1926[135][136]

Copa Británica

1(s)

1946[135][137]

International

Intercontinental Cup [note2 1]

3(s)

1977, 2000, 2003

Copa Libertadores [note2 2]

6

1977, 1978, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2007

Copa Sudamericana [note2 2]

2(s)

2004, 2005

Recopa Sudamericana [note2 2]

4

1990, 2005, 2006, 2008

Supercopa Libertadores [note2 2]

1

1989

Copa de Oro [note2 2]

1(s)

1993

Copa Master [note2 2]

1(s)

1992

Tie Cup [note2 3]

1

1919

Copa de Honor Cousenier [note2 3]

1

1920

Copa Escobar-Gerona [note2 3]

2

1945,[note2 4] 1946

Other titles[edit]

Titles won in lower divisions

División Intermedia (2): 1922, 1923 [note2 5]

Segunda División (1): 1936 [note2 5]

Tercera División (3): 1912, 1915, 1923 [note2 5]

Copa Bullrich (2): 1918, 1934 [note2 6]

Independent leagues

Liga Central de Football: 1906

Copa Barone [note2 7]: 1908

Friendly

Torneo Triangular Buenos Aires: 1963 [142]

Torneo Cuadrangular de Montevideo: 1963 [143]

Mohammed V Trophy: 1964[144]

Trofeo Ciudad de San Sebastián (Spain): 1966 [145]

Copa Rio de la Plata: 1970 [146]

Trofeo Ciudad de Valladolid (Spain): 1975 [147]

Cuadrangular de los Grandes: 1985 [148]

Trofeo Naranja: 1985 [149]

Trofeo Isla de Tenerife: 1993 [150]

Vodafone Cup (England): 2004 [151][152]

Copa 100 Años de Atilio García (Uruguay): 2014 [153]

Antonio Puerta Trophy (Spain): 2016[154]

Maradona Cup: 2021

Notes

^ Organised by UEFA and Conmebol together

^ Jump up to:a b c d e f CONMEBOL competition

^ Jump up to:a b c Organised by AFA and AUF together

^ Title shared with Nacional.

^ Jump up to:a b c As the senior squad was competing in Primera División, Boca Juniors played with a reserve team.[138][139][140]

^ The Copa Bullrich was an official football competition contested by clubs playing in the Second Division. Boca Juniors won those titles playing with reserve teams so the senior squad had promoted to Primera División in 1913. The AFA has not included this competition into the list of national cups because only teams in Primera División participated in those competitions.[141]

^ Organised by Liga Albión de Football. After winning this title, Boca Juniors registered to the Argentine Football Association.

Records and facts[edit]

Seasons in Primera División: 108 (all seasons since the team's debut in 1913).[155]

Largest win:Domestic: 11–1 to Tigre, on 7 June 1942.[156]

International: 7–0 to Bolívar on 26 April 2007 at 2007 Copa Libertadores[157]

Worst defeat:Domestic: 0–7 v San Isidro on 10 October 1915.[158]

International: 1–6 v Palmeiras at 1994 Copa Libertadores[159]

Worst position in official domestic tournaments: 19th. at 2013 Torneo Final

All-time topscorer: Martín Palermo (236 goals)

Topscorer in a single tournament: Domingo Tarasconi (40 goals in 33 games during 1923 Primera División)[160]

Topscorer at international tournaments: Martín Palermo (43 goals)

Topscorer at Copa Libertadores: Román Riquelme (25 goals)[161][162]

Most games unbeaten in domestic tournaments: 40 matches (from 15th fixture of Clausura 1998 to 16th fixture of 1999 Clausura)[163]

Most capped player: Roberto Mouzo (426 matches)

Player with most titles won: Sebastián Battaglia (17 titles)

Goalkeeper with minute-record scoreless goal: Esteban Andrada (864' with no goals allowed)[164]

Tied for 4th club in the world with most international cups won (18) [165]

Other sports sections[edit]

Football reserves and academy[edit]

Main article: Boca Juniors Reserves and Academy

The reserve and youth academy football teams of the club, currently coached by former club player Rolando Schiavi,[166] who debuted in February 2015.[167] Boca Juniors is the most winning Torneo de Reserva championships with 21 titles won since it was established in 1910.

Notable players from the youth academy include Américo Tesoriere, Natalio Pescia, Ernesto Lazzatti, Antonio Rattín, Ángel Clemente Rojas, Roberto Mouzo, Oscar Ruggeri, Diego Latorre, Carlos Tevez and Fernando Gago, among others.

Basketball[edit]

Main article: Boca Juniors (basketball)

The Boca Juniors basketball team, established in 1929, won several Argentine championships organised by now-defunct bodies "Asociación de Básquetbol de Buenos Aires" and "Federación Argentina de Básquetbol". Since the Liga Nacional de Básquet was created in 1985, Boca Juniors has won the LNB league title three times (1996–97, 2003–04, and 2006–07), five Copa Argentina (2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006), and one Torneo Top 4 (in 2004).

At international level, Boca Juniors won three South American Club Championships in 2004, 2005, and 2006.[168][169]

Their home arena is the Estadio Luis Conde, better known as La Bombonerita (small Bombonera).

Field hockey[edit]

In September 2022, Boca Juniors announced the club would open a field hockey section for men and women.[170] In May 2023, the club inaugurated a hockey field, with Las Leonas all-time top scorer Vanina Oneto as part of the project. Oneto was appointed manager of Boca Juniors Hockey.[171]

Futsal[edit]

Boca Juniors compete in Primera División de Futsal, the top division of the futsal league system and organised by AFA. The club is the 2nd most winning team (after Club Pinocho) of Primera División, with 12 titles, the last won in 2017 after beating Kimberley in the finals.[172]

Volleyball[edit]

Boca Juniors has a professional volleyball team that won the Metropolitan championship in 1991, 1992 and 1996, and achieved the second place in the 1996–97 A1 season. Because of a lack of sponsors, the team was disbanded, but later it was reincorporated through the coaching of former Boca player Marcelo Gigante; after playing in the second division, it returned to the A1 league in 2005.

In August 2015 it was announced that Boca Juniors's volleyball team would not participate in the Argentine major league (A1) from 2016. The decision was personally taken by Boca Juniors chairman, Daniel Angelici. The club alleged that taking part in a professional league resulted in a hugh commercial deficit so Boca Juniors declined to participate, although the volleyball department had reached an agreement with several sponsors which would put the money to cover the costs (about A$ 3 million).[173]

Women's football[edit]

Main article: Boca Juniors (women)

The Boca Juniors women's football team plays in the Campeonato de Fútbol Femenino and have won the championship a record 23 times of which 10 were in succession from the 2003 Apertura to the 2008 Clausura.[174]

Though the club has not yet won any international competition, it secured the third place at the 2010 Copa Libertadores de Fútbol Femenino.

In Futsal, Boca has won 6 Championships: 1992, 1993, Clausura 1997, Apertura 1998, Clausura 2003 (Men), and 2004 (women).

Boca representatives also compete in other disciplines such as judo, karate, taekwondo, wrestling, weight lifting and gymnastics.[175]

Merchandising[edit]

Boca Juniors themed street vendor in La Boca

Boca Juniors has expanded its activity beyond sport, providing its fans with a number of other products and services.

In 2003, it became the fifth football club in the world to open its own TV channel. Boca TV broadcast 24 hours a day, featuring sports programs and talk shows. The channel was closed in 2005 due to low audience, returning in 2015 as a website.[176] In 2005, a funerary company started to produce a line of coffins available for dead fans.[177][178] The club also opened a "Boca Juniors" exclusive section of 3,000 hectare in the Parque Iraola Cemetery of La Plata Partido in 2006.[179][180]

Also in 2006, Boca expanded its business launching its own fleet of taxis operating in Buenos Aires,[181][182] as well as its own brand of wine, called "Vino Boca Juniors".[183]

In 2012 Boca Juniors opened in Buenos Aires its first thematic hotel not only in Argentina but worldwide. The hotel was designed by Uruguayan architect Carlos Ott. All the rooms were decorated with the colours of the club, apart from photos and paintings of notable players in the history of the club.[184][185]

There is an Argentine steakhouse in Queens, NYC which is a Boca Juniors theme restaurant.[186][187]

Sponsorships[edit]

In racing, Argentine Turismo Carretera stock-car competition league spun off the Top Race V6 category, in which teams were sponsored by football teams.[188] Veteran race pilots Guillermo Ortelli and Ernesto Bessone and former Boca player Vicente Pernía drove for the "Boca Juniors" team; Ortelli finally won the first Top Race V6 championship with his car painted in Boca Juniors colors.[189]

On 6 and 9 August 1945, the United States detonated two atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectively. The aerial bombings together killed between 129,000 and 226,000 people, most of whom were civilians, and remain the only use of nuclear weapons in an armed conflict. Japan surrendered to the Allies on 15 August, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet Union's declaration of war against Japan and invasion of Japanese-occupied Manchuria. The Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender on 2 September, effectively ending the war.

In the final year of World War II, the Allies prepared for a costly invasion of the Japanese mainland. This undertaking was preceded by a conventional bombing and firebombing campaign that devastated 64 Japanese cities. The war in the European theatre concluded when Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945, and the Allies turned their full attention to the Pacific War. By July 1945, the Allies' Manhattan Project had produced two types of atomic bombs: "Fat Man", a plutonium implosion-type nuclear weapon; and "Little Boy", an enriched uranium gun-type fission weapon. The 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces was trained and equipped with the specialized Silverplate version of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, and deployed to Tinian in the Mariana Islands. The Allies called for the unconditional surrender of the Imperial Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on 26 July 1945, the alternative being "prompt and utter destruction". The Japanese government ignored the ultimatum.

The consent of the United Kingdom was obtained for the bombing, as was required by the Quebec Agreement, and orders were issued on 25 July by General Thomas Handy, the acting chief of staff of the United States Army, for atomic bombs to be used against Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata, and Nagasaki. These targets were chosen because they were large urban areas that also held militarily significant facilities. On 6 August, a Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima, to which Prime Minister Kantarō Suzuki reiterated the Japanese government's commitment to ignore the Allies' demands and fight on. Three days later, a Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki. Over the next two to four months, the effects of the atomic bombings killed between 90,000 and 146,000 people in Hiroshima and 60,000 and 80,000 people in Nagasaki; roughly half occurred on the first day. For months afterward, many people continued to die from the effects of burns, radiation sickness, and injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition. Though Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison, most of the dead were civilians.

Scholars have extensively studied the effects of the bombings on the social and political character of subsequent world history and popular culture, and there is still much debate concerning the ethical and legal justification for the bombings. Supporters claim that the atomic bombings were necessary to bring an end to the war with minimal American casualties; critics believe that the bombings were unnecessary and a war crime, and highlight the moral and ethical implications of the intentional nuclear attack on civilians.

Background

Pacific War

Main article: Pacific War

showv

t

e

Pacific War

Situation of the Pacific War on 1 August 1945.

White and green: Areas still controlled by Japan included Korea, Taiwan, Indochina, and much of China, including most of the main cities, and the Dutch East Indies

Red: Allied-held areas

Grey: Neutral Soviet Union

In 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. Most Japanese military units fought fiercely, ensuring that the Allied victory would come at an enormous cost. The 1.25 million battle casualties incurred in total by the United States in World War II included both military personnel killed in action and wounded in action. Nearly one million of the casualties occurred during the last year of the war, from June 1944 to June 1945. In December 1944, American battle casualties hit an all-time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive. America's reserves of manpower were running out. Deferments for groups such as agricultural workers were tightened, and there was consideration of drafting women. At the same time, the public was becoming war-weary, and demanding that long-serving servicemen be sent home.[1]

In the Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines,[2] recaptured Burma,[3] and invaded Borneo.[4] Offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville, New Guinea and the Philippines.[5] In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa, where heavy fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from five to one in the Philippines to two to one on Okinawa.[1] Although some Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner, most fought until they were killed or committed suicide. Nearly 99 percent of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed. Of the 117,000 Okinawan and Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April to June 1945, 94 percent were killed;[6] 7,401 Japanese soldiers surrendered, an unprecedentedly large number.[7]

As the Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people. Japan's merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945. Lack of raw materials forced the Japanese war economy into a steep decline after the middle of 1944. The civilian economy, which had slowly deteriorated throughout the war, reached disastrous levels by the middle of 1945. The loss of shipping also affected the fishing fleet, and the 1945 catch was only 22 percent of that in 1941. The 1945 rice harvest was the worst since 1909, and hunger and malnutrition became widespread. U.S. industrial production was overwhelmingly superior to Japan's. By 1943, the U.S. produced almost 100,000 aircraft a year, compared to Japan's production of 70,000 for the entire war. In February 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe advised Emperor Hirohito that defeat was inevitable, and urged him to abdicate.[8]

Preparations to invade Japan

Main article: Operation Downfall

Even before the surrender of Nazi Germany on 8 May 1945, plans were underway for the largest operation of the Pacific War, Operation Downfall, the Allied invasion of Japan.[9] The operation had two parts: Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet. Set to begin in October 1945, Olympic involved a series of landings by the U.S. Sixth Army intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island, Kyūshū.[10] Operation Olympic was to be followed in March 1946 by Operation Coronet, the capture of the Kantō Plain, near Tokyo on the main Japanese island of Honshū by the U.S. First, Eighth and Tenth Armies, as well as a Commonwealth Corps made up of Australian, British and Canadian divisions. The target date was chosen to allow for Olympic to complete its objectives, for troops to be redeployed from Europe, and the Japanese winter to pass.[11]

U.S. Army propaganda poster depicting Uncle Sam preparing the public for the invasion of Japan after ending war on Germany and Italy

Japan's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese; they were able to predict the Allied invasion plans accurately and thus adjust their defensive plan, Operation Ketsugō, accordingly. The Japanese planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations.[12] Four veteran divisions were withdrawn from the Kwantung Army in Manchuria in March 1945 to strengthen the forces in Japan,[13] and 45 new divisions were activated between February and May 1945. Most were immobile formations for coastal defense, but 16 were high quality mobile divisions.[14] In all, there were 2.3 million Japanese Army troops prepared to defend the home islands, backed by a civilian militia of 28 million men and women. Casualty predictions varied widely, but were extremely high. The Vice Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff, Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi, predicted up to 20 million Japanese deaths.[15]

On 15 June 1945, a study by the Joint War Plans Committee,[16] who provided planning information to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, estimated that Olympic would result in 130,000 to 220,000 U.S. casualties, with U.S. dead in the range from 25,000 to 46,000. Delivered on 15 June 1945, after insight gained from the Battle of Okinawa, the study noted Japan's inadequate defenses due to the very effective sea blockade and the American firebombing campaign. The Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General of the Army George Marshall, and the Army Commander in Chief in the Pacific, General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, signed documents agreeing with the Joint War Plans Committee estimate.[17]

The Americans were alarmed by the Japanese buildup, which was accurately tracked through Ultra intelligence.[18] Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was sufficiently concerned about high American estimates of probable casualties to commission his own study by Quincy Wright and William Shockley. Wright and Shockley spoke with Colonels James McCormack and Dean Rusk, and examined casualty forecasts by Michael E. DeBakey and Gilbert Beebe. Wright and Shockley estimated the invading Allies would suffer between 1.7 and 4 million casualties in such a scenario, of whom between 400,000 and 800,000 would be dead, while Japanese fatalities would have been around 5 to 10 million.[19][20]

Marshall began contemplating the use of a weapon that was "readily available and which assuredly can decrease the cost in American lives":[21] poison gas. Quantities of phosgene, mustard gas, tear gas and cyanogen chloride were moved to Luzon from stockpiles in Australia and New Guinea in preparation for Operation Olympic, and MacArthur ensured that Chemical Warfare Service units were trained in their use.[21] Consideration was also given to using biological weapons against Japan.[22]

Air raids on Japan

Main article: Air raids on Japan

A B-29 over Osaka on 1 June 1945

While the United States had developed plans for an air campaign against Japan prior to the Pacific War, the capture of Allied bases in the western Pacific in the first weeks of the conflict meant that this offensive did not begin until mid-1944 when the long-ranged Boeing B-29 Superfortress became ready for use in combat.[23] Operation Matterhorn involved India-based B-29s staging through bases around Chengdu in China to make a series of raids on strategic targets in Japan.[24] This effort failed to achieve the strategic objectives that its planners had intended, largely because of logistical problems, the bomber's mechanical difficulties, the vulnerability of Chinese staging bases, and the extreme range required to reach key Japanese cities.[25]

Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell determined that Guam, Tinian, and Saipan in the Mariana Islands would better serve as B-29 bases, but they were in Japanese hands.[26] Strategies were shifted to accommodate the air war,[27] and the islands were captured between June and August 1944. Air bases were developed,[28] and B-29 operations commenced from the Marianas in October 1944.[29] These bases were easily resupplied by cargo ships.[30] The XXI Bomber Command began missions against Japan on 18 November 1944.[31] The early attempts to bomb Japan from the Marianas proved just as ineffective as the China-based B-29s had been. Hansell continued the practice of conducting so-called high-altitude precision bombing, aimed at key industries and transportation networks, even after these tactics had not produced acceptable results.[32] These efforts proved unsuccessful due to logistical difficulties with the remote location, technical problems with the new and advanced aircraft, unfavorable weather conditions, and enemy action.[33][34]

The Operation Meetinghouse firebombing of Tokyo on the night of 9–10 March 1945, was the single deadliest air raid in history,[35] with a greater area of fire damage and loss of life than either of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima or Nagasaki.[36][37]

Hansell's successor, Major General Curtis LeMay, assumed command in January 1945 and initially continued to use the same precision bombing tactics, with equally unsatisfactory results. The attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities but much of the Japanese manufacturing process was carried out in small workshops and private homes.[38] Under pressure from United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) headquarters in Washington, LeMay changed tactics and decided that low-level incendiary raids against Japanese cities were the only way to destroy their production capabilities, shifting from precision bombing to area bombardment with incendiaries.[39] Like most strategic bombing during World War II, the aim of the air offensive against Japan was to destroy the enemy's war industries, kill or disable civilian employees of these industries, and undermine civilian morale.[40][41]

Over the next six months, the XXI Bomber Command under LeMay firebombed 64 Japanese cities.[42] The firebombing of Tokyo, codenamed Operation Meetinghouse, on 9–10 March killed an estimated 100,000 people and destroyed 41 km2 (16 sq mi) of the city and 267,000 buildings in a single night. It was the deadliest bombing raid of the war, at a cost of 20 B-29s shot down by flak and fighters.[43] By May, 75 percent of bombs dropped were incendiaries designed to burn down Japan's "paper cities". By mid-June, Japan's six largest cities had been devastated.[44] The end of the fighting on Okinawa that month provided airfields even closer to the Japanese mainland, allowing the bombing campaign to be further escalated. Aircraft flying from Allied aircraft carriers and the Ryukyu Islands also regularly struck targets in Japan during 1945 in preparation for Operation Downfall.[45] Firebombing switched to smaller cities, with populations ranging from 60,000 to 350,000. According to Yuki Tanaka, the U.S. fire-bombed over a hundred Japanese towns and cities.[46] These raids were devastating.[47]

The Japanese military was unable to stop the Allied attacks and the country's civil defense preparations proved inadequate. Japanese fighters and anti-aircraft guns had difficulty engaging bombers flying at high altitude.[48] From April 1945, the Japanese interceptors also had to face American fighter escorts based on Iwo Jima and Okinawa.[49] That month, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service stopped attempting to intercept the air raids to preserve fighter aircraft to counter the expected invasion.[50] By mid-1945 the Japanese only occasionally scrambled aircraft to intercept individual B-29s conducting reconnaissance sorties over the country, to conserve supplies of fuel.[51] In July 1945, the Japanese had 137,800,000 litres (1,156,000 US bbl) of avgas stockpiled for the invasion of Japan. About 72,000,000 litres (604,000 US bbl) had been consumed in the home islands area in April, May and June 1945.[52] While the Japanese military decided to resume attacks on Allied bombers from late June, by this time there were too few operational fighters available for this change of tactics to hinder the Allied air raids.[53]

Atomic bomb development

Leslie Groves, Manhattan Project director, with a map of Japan

Main article: Manhattan Project

The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility.[54] Fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop atomic weapons first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries, were expressed in the Einstein–Szilard letter in 1939. This prompted preliminary research in the United States in late 1939.[55] Progress was slow until the arrival of the British MAUD Committee report in late 1941, which indicated that only 5 to 10 kilograms of isotopically enriched uranium-235 were needed for a bomb instead of tons of natural uranium and a neutron moderator like heavy water.[56]

The 1943 Quebec Agreement merged the nuclear weapons projects of the United Kingdom and Canada, Tube Alloys and the Montreal Laboratory, with the Manhattan Project,[57][58] under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.[59] Groves appointed J. Robert Oppenheimer to organize and head the project's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, where bomb design work was carried out.[60] Two types of bombs were eventually developed, both named by Robert Serber. Little Boy was a gun-type fission weapon that used uranium-235, a rare isotope of uranium separated at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, Tennessee.[61] The other, known as a Fat Man device, was a more powerful and efficient, but more complicated, implosion-type nuclear weapon that used plutonium created in nuclear reactors at Hanford, Washington.[62]

There was a Japanese nuclear weapon program, but it lacked the human, mineral and financial resources of the Manhattan Project, and never made much progress towards developing an atomic bomb.[63]

Preparations

Organization and training

The "Tinian Joint Chiefs": Captain William S. Parsons (left), Rear Admiral William R. Purnell (center), and Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell (right)

The 509th Composite Group was constituted on 9 December 1944, and activated on 17 December 1944, at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets.[64] Tibbets was assigned to organize and command a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon against targets in Germany and Japan. Because the flying squadrons of the group consisted of both bomber and transport aircraft, the group was designated as a "composite" rather than a "bombardment" unit.[65] Due to its remoteness, Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend, Kansas and Mountain Home, Idaho.[66] Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert or conventional explosive pumpkin bombs, targeting islands around Tinian and later the Japanese home islands, until as late as August 14, 1945.[67][68] Some of the missions over Japan were flown by single unescorted bombers with a single payload in order to accustom the Japanese to this pattern. They also simulated actual atomic bombing runs, including the directions of ingress and egress with respect to the wind. Tibbets himself was barred from flying most missions over Japan for fear that he might be captured and forced to reveal what he knew.[68] On 5 April 1945, the code name Operation Centerboard was assigned. The officer responsible for its allocation in the War Department's Operations Division was not cleared to know any details of it. The first bombing was later codenamed Operation Centerboard I, and the second, Operation Centerboard II.[69]

Aircraft of the 509th Composite Group that took part in the Hiroshima bombing. Left to right: Big Stink, The Great Artiste, Enola Gay

The 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1,542 enlisted men, almost all of whom eventually deployed to Tinian. In addition to its authorized strength, the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel from Project Alberta,[70] known as the 1st Technical Detachment.[71] The 509th Composite Group's 393d Bombardment Squadron was equipped with 15 Silverplate B-29s. These aircraft were specially adapted to carry nuclear weapons, and were equipped with fuel-injected engines, Curtiss Electric reversible-pitch propellers, pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements.[72]

The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group moved by rail on 26 April 1945, to its port of embarkation at Seattle, Washington. On 6 May the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas, while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner. The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area. An advance party of the air echelon, consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men, flew by C-54 to North Field on Tinian, between 15 and 22 May.[73] There were also two representatives from Washington, D.C., Brigadier General Thomas Farrell, the deputy commander of the Manhattan Project, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee,[74] who were on hand to decide higher policy matters on the spot. Along with Captain William S. Parsons, the commander of Project Alberta, they became known as the "Tinian Joint Chiefs".[75]

Choice of targets

The mission runs of 6 and 9 August, with Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Kokura (the original target for 9 August) displayed

In April 1945, Marshall asked Groves to nominate specific targets for bombing for final approval by himself and Stimson. Groves formed a Target Committee, chaired by himself, that included Farrell, Major John A. Derry, Colonel William P. Fisher, Joyce C. Stearns and David M. Dennison from the USAAF; and scientists John von Neumann, Robert R. Wilson and William Penney from the Manhattan Project. The Target Committee met in Washington on 27 April; at Los Alamos on 10 May, where it was able to talk to the scientists and technicians there; and finally in Washington on 28 May, where it was briefed by Tibbets and Commander Frederick Ashworth from Project Alberta, and the Manhattan Project's scientific advisor, Richard C. Tolman.[76]

The Target Committee nominated five targets: Kokura (now Kitakyushu), the site of one of Japan's largest munitions plants; Hiroshima, an embarkation port and industrial center that was the site of a major military headquarters; Yokohama, an urban center for aircraft manufacture, machine tools, docks, electrical equipment and oil refineries; Niigata, a port with industrial facilities including steel and aluminum plants and an oil refinery; and Kyoto, a major industrial center. The target selection was subject to the following criteria:

The target was larger than 4.8 km (3 mi) in diameter and was an important target in a large city.

The blast wave would create effective damage.

The target was unlikely to be attacked by August 1945.[77]

These cities were largely untouched during the nightly bombing raids, and the Army Air Forces agreed to leave them off the target list so accurate assessment of the damage caused by the atomic bombs could be made. Hiroshima was described as "an important army depot and port of embarkation in the middle of an urban industrial area. It is a good radar target and it is such a size that a large part of the city could be extensively damaged. There are adjacent hills which are likely to produce a focusing effect which would considerably increase the blast damage. Due to rivers it is not a good incendiary target."[77]

The Target Committee stated that "It was agreed that psychological factors in the target selection were of great importance. Two aspects of this are (1) obtaining the greatest psychological effect against Japan and (2) making the initial use sufficiently spectacular for the importance of the weapon to be internationally recognized when publicity on it is released. ... Kyoto has the advantage of the people being more highly intelligent and hence better able to appreciate the significance of the weapon. Hiroshima has the advantage of being such a size and with possible focussing from nearby mountains that a large fraction of the city may be destroyed. The Emperor's palace in Tokyo has a greater fame than any other target but is of least strategic value."[77]

Edwin O. Reischauer, a Japan expert for the U.S. Army Intelligence Service, was incorrectly said to have prevented the bombing of Kyoto.[77] In his autobiography, Reischauer specifically refuted this claim:

... the only person deserving credit for saving Kyoto from destruction is Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War at the time, who had known and admired Kyoto ever since his honeymoon there several decades earlier.[78][79]

On 30 May, Stimson asked Groves to remove Kyoto from the target list due to its historical, religious and cultural significance, but Groves pointed to its military and industrial significance.[80] Stimson then approached President Harry S. Truman about the matter. Truman agreed with Stimson, and Kyoto was temporarily removed from the target list.[81] Groves attempted to restore Kyoto to the target list in July, but Stimson remained adamant.[82][83] On 25 July, Nagasaki was put on the target list in place of Kyoto. It was a major military port, one of Japan's largest shipbuilding and repair centers, and an important producer of naval ordnance.[83]

Proposed demonstration

In early May 1945, the Interim Committee was created by Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear technology.[84] They agreed that the atomic bomb was to be used (1) against Japan at the earliest opportunity, (2) without special warning, and (3) on a "dual target" of military installation surrounded by other buildings susceptible to damage.[85]

During the meetings on 31 May and 1 June, scientist Ernest Lawrence had suggested giving the Japanese a non-combat demonstration.[86] Arthur Compton later recalled that:

It was evident that everyone would suspect trickery. If a bomb were exploded in Japan with previous notice, the Japanese air power was still adequate to give serious interference. An atomic bomb was an intricate device, still in the developmental stage. Its operation would be far from routine. If during the final adjustments of the bomb the Japanese defenders should attack, a faulty move might easily result in some kind of failure. Such an end to an advertised demonstration of power would be much worse than if the attempt had not been made. It was now evident that when the time came for the bombs to be used we should have only one of them available, followed afterwards by others at all-too-long intervals. We could not afford the chance that one of them might be a dud. If the test were made on some neutral territory, it was hard to believe that Japan's determined and fanatical military men would be impressed. If such an open test were made first and failed to bring surrender, the chance would be gone to give the shock of surprise that proved so effective. On the contrary, it would make the Japanese ready to interfere with an atomic attack if they could. Though the possibility of a demonstration that would not destroy human lives was attractive, no one could suggest a way in which it could be made so convincing that it would be likely to stop the war.[87]

The possibility of a demonstration was raised again in the Franck Report issued by physicist James Franck on 11 June and the Scientific Advisory Panel rejected his report on 16 June, saying that "we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use." Franck then took the report to Washington, D.C., where the Interim Committee met on 21 June to re-examine its earlier conclusions; but it reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb on a military target.[88]

Like Compton, many U.S. officials and scientists argued that a demonstration would sacrifice the shock value of the atomic attack, and the Japanese could deny the atomic bomb was lethal, making the mission less likely to produce surrender. Allied prisoners of war might be moved to the demonstration site and be killed by the bomb. They also worried that the bomb might be a failure, as the Trinity test was that of a stationary device, not an air-dropped bomb. In addition, although more bombs were in production, only two would be available at the start of August, and they cost billions of dollars, so using one for a demonstration would be expensive.[89][90]

Leaflets

Various leaflets were dropped on Japan, three versions showing the names of 11 or 12 Japanese cities targeted for destruction by firebombing. The other side contained text stating "... we cannot promise that only these cities will be among those attacked ..."[91]

For several months, the U.S. had warned civilians of potential air raids by dropping more than 63 million leaflets across Japan. Many Japanese cities suffered terrible damage from aerial bombings; some were as much as 97 percent destroyed. LeMay thought that leaflets would increase the psychological impact of bombing, and reduce the international stigma of area-bombing cities. Even with the warnings, Japanese opposition to the war remained ineffective. In general, the Japanese regarded the leaflet messages as truthful, with many Japanese choosing to leave major cities. The leaflets caused such concern that the government ordered the arrest of anyone caught in possession of a leaflet.[91][92] Leaflet texts were prepared by recent Japanese prisoners of war because they were thought to be the best choice "to appeal to their compatriots".[93]

In preparation for dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the Oppenheimer-led Scientific Panel of the Interim Committee decided against a demonstration bomb and against a special leaflet warning. Those decisions were implemented because of the uncertainty of a successful detonation and also because of the wish to maximize shock in the leadership.[94] No warning was given to Hiroshima that a new and much more destructive bomb was going to be dropped.[95] Various sources gave conflicting information about when the last leaflets were dropped on Hiroshima prior to the atomic bomb. Robert Jay Lifton wrote that it was 27 July,[95] and Theodore H. McNelly wrote that it was 30 July.[94] The USAAF history noted that eleven cities were targeted with leaflets on 27 July, but Hiroshima was not one of them, and there were no leaflet sorties on 30 July.[92] Leaflet sorties were undertaken on 1 and 4 August. Hiroshima may have been leafleted in late July or early August, as survivor accounts talk about a delivery of leaflets a few days before the atomic bomb was dropped.[95] Three versions were printed of a leaflet listing 11 or 12 cities targeted for firebombing; a total of 33 cities listed. With the text of this leaflet reading in Japanese "... we cannot promise that only these cities will be among those attacked ..."[91] Hiroshima was not listed.[96][97]

Consultation with Britain and Canada

General Thomas Handy's order to General Carl Spaatz ordering the dropping of the atomic bombs

In 1943, the United States and the United Kingdom signed the Quebec Agreement, which stipulated that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. Stimson therefore had to obtain British permission. A meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, which included one Canadian representative, was held at the Pentagon on 4 July 1945.[98] Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson announced that the British government concurred with the use of nuclear weapons against Japan, which would be officially recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee.[98][99][100] As the release of information to third parties was also controlled by the Quebec Agreement, discussion then turned to what scientific details would be revealed in the press announcement of the bombing. The meeting also considered what Truman could reveal to Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, at the upcoming Potsdam Conference, as this also required British concurrence.[98]

Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on 25 July under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy, the acting chief of staff, since Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with Truman.[101] It read:

The 509th Composite Group, 20th Air Force will deliver its first special bomb as soon as weather will permit visual bombing after about 3 August 1945 on one of the targets: Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata and Nagasaki. To carry military and civilian scientific personnel from the War Department to observe and record the effects of the explosion of the bomb, additional aircraft will accompany the airplane carrying the bomb. The observing planes will stay several miles distant from the point of impact of the bomb.

Additional bombs will be delivered on the above targets as soon as made ready by the project staff. Further instructions will be issued concerning targets other than those listed above.[102]

That day, Truman noted in his diary that:

This weapon is to be used against Japan between now and August 10th. I have told the Sec. of War, Mr. Stimson, to use it so that military objectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children. Even if the Japs are savages, ruthless, merciless and fanatic, we as the leader of the world for the common welfare cannot drop that terrible bomb on the old capital [Kyoto] or the new [Tokyo]. He and I are in accord. The target will be a purely military one.[103]

Potsdam Declaration

Main article: Potsdam Declaration

The 16 July success of the Trinity Test in the New Mexico desert exceeded expectations.[104] On 26 July, Allied leaders issued the Potsdam Declaration, which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan. The declaration was presented as an ultimatum and stated that without a surrender, the Allies would attack Japan, resulting in "the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland". The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the communiqué.[105]

On 28 July, Japanese papers reported that the declaration had been rejected by the Japanese government. That afternoon, Prime Minister Kantarō Suzuki declared at a press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was no more than a rehash (yakinaoshi) of the Cairo Declaration, that the government intended to ignore it (mokusatsu, "kill by silence"), and that Japan would fight to the end.[106] The statement was taken by both Japanese and foreign papers as a clear rejection of the declaration. Emperor Hirohito, who was waiting for a Soviet reply to non-committal Japanese peace feelers, made no move to change the government position.[107] Japan's willingness to surrender remained conditional on the preservation of the kokutai (Imperial institution and national polity), assumption by the Imperial Headquarters of responsibility for disarmament and demobilization, no occupation of the Japanese Home Islands, Korea or Formosa, and delegation of the punishment of war criminals to the Japanese government.[108]

At Potsdam, Truman agreed to a request from Winston Churchill that Britain be represented when the atomic bomb was dropped. William Penney and Group Captain Leonard Cheshire were sent to Tinian, but found that LeMay would not let them accompany the mission. All they could do was send a strongly worded signal to Wilson.[109]

Bombs

The Little Boy bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945.[110] There were two uranium-235 components, a hollow cylindrical projectile and a cylindrical target insert. The projectile was completed on 15 June, and the target insert on 24 July.[111] The projectile and eight bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the powder charge and fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, California, on 16 July aboard the cruiser USS Indianapolis, and arrived on Tinian on 26 July.[112] The target insert followed by air on 30 July, accompanied by Commander Francis Birch from Project Alberta.[111] Responding to concerns expressed by the 509th Composite Group about the possibility of a B-29 crashing on takeoff, Birch had modified the Little Boy design to incorporate a removable breech plug that would permit the bomb to be armed in flight.[110]

The first plutonium core, along with its polonium-beryllium urchin initiator, was transported in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison. Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a neutron reflector.[113] The core departed from Kirtland Army Air Field on a C-54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on 26 July, and arrived at North Field 28 July. Three Fat Man high-explosive pre-assemblies, designated F31, F32, and F33, were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B-29s, two from the 393d Bombardment Squadron plus one from the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit, and transported to North Field, arriving on 2 August.[114]

Hiroshima

Hiroshima during World War II

The Enola Gay dropped the "Little Boy" atomic bomb on Hiroshima. Paul Tibbets (center in photograph) can be seen with six members of the ground crew.

At the time of its bombing, Hiroshima was a city of industrial and military significance. A number of military units were located nearby, the most important of which was the headquarters of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata's Second General Army, which commanded the defense of all of southern Japan,[115] and was located in Hiroshima Castle. Hata's command consisted of some 400,000 men, most of whom were on Kyushu where an Allied invasion was correctly anticipated.[116] Also present in Hiroshima were the headquarters of the 59th Army, the 5th Division and the 224th Division, a recently formed mobile unit.[117] The city was defended by five batteries of 70 mm and 80 mm (2.8 and 3.1 inch) anti-aircraft guns of the 3rd Anti-Aircraft Division, including units from the 121st and 122nd Anti-Aircraft Regiments and the 22nd and 45th Separate Anti-Aircraft Battalions. In total, an estimated 40,000 Japanese military personnel were stationed in the city.[118]

Hiroshima was a supply and logistics base for the Japanese military.[119] The city was a communications center, a key port for shipping, and an assembly area for troops.[80] It supported a large war industry, manufacturing parts for planes and boats, for bombs, rifles, and handguns.[120] The center of the city contained several reinforced concrete buildings and lighter structures. Outside the center, the area was congested by a dense collection of small timber workshops set among Japanese houses. A few larger industrial plants lay near the outskirts of the city. The houses were constructed of timber with tile roofs, and many of the industrial buildings were also built around timber frames. The city as a whole was highly susceptible to fire damage.[121] It was the second largest city in Japan after Kyoto that was still undamaged by air raids,[122] primarily because it lacked the aircraft manufacturing industry that was the XXI Bomber Command's priority target. On 3 July, the Joint Chiefs of Staff placed it off limits to bombers, along with Kokura, Niigata and Kyoto.[123]

The population of Hiroshima had reached a peak of over 381,000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing, the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government. At the time of the attack, the population was approximately 340,000–350,000.[124] Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing.[125] Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters, others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned the U.S. government to avoid bombing Hiroshima.[126] More realistic city officials had ordered buildings torn down to create long, straight firebreaks.[127] These continued to be expanded and extended up to the morning of 6 August 1945.[128]

Bombing of Hiroshima

Hiroshima was the primary target of the first atomic bombing mission on 6 August, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets. The 393d Bombardment Squadron B-29 Enola Gay, named after Tibbets's mother and piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, Tinian, about six hours' flight time from Japan.[129] Enola Gay was accompanied by two other B-29s: The Great Artiste, commanded by Major Charles Sweeney, which carried instrumentation, and a then-nameless aircraft later called Necessary Evil, commanded by Captain George Marquardt. Necessary Evil was the photography aircraft.[130]

Strike order for the Hiroshima bombing as posted on 5 August 1945

Special Mission 13, primary target Hiroshima, 6 August 1945[130][131]

Aircraft

Pilot

Call sign

Mission role

Straight Flush

Major Claude R. Eatherly

Dimples 85

Weather reconnaissance (Hiroshima)

Jabit III

Major John A. Wilson

Dimples 71

Weather reconnaissance (Kokura)

Full House

Major Ralph R. Taylor

Dimples 83

Weather reconnaissance (Nagasaki)

Enola Gay

Colonel Paul W. Tibbets

Dimples 82

Weapon delivery

The Great Artiste

Major Charles W. Sweeney

Dimples 89

Blast measurement instrumentation

Necessary Evil

Captain George W. Marquardt

Dimples 91

Strike observation and photography

Top Secret

Captain Charles F. McKnight

Dimples 72

Strike spare – did not complete mission

After leaving Tinian, the aircraft made their way separately to Iwo Jima to rendezvous with Sweeney and Marquardt at 05:55 at 2,800 meters (9,200 ft),[132] and set course for Japan. The aircraft arrived over the target in clear visibility at 9,470 meters (31,060 ft).[133] Parsons, who was in command of the mission, armed the bomb in flight to minimize the risks during takeoff. He had witnessed four B-29s crash and burn at takeoff, and feared that a nuclear explosion would occur if a B-29 crashed with an armed Little Boy on board.[134] His assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, removed the safety devices 30 minutes before reaching the target area.[135]

The Hiroshima atom bomb cloud 2–5 minutes after detonation[136]

During the night of 5–6 August, Japanese early warning radar detected the approach of numerous American aircraft headed for the southern part of Japan. Radar detected 65 bombers headed for Saga, 102 bound for Maebashi, 261 en route to Nishinomiya, 111 headed for Ube and 66 bound for Imabari. An alert was given and radio broadcasting stopped in many cities, among them Hiroshima. The all-clear was sounded in Hiroshima at 00:05.[137] About an hour before the bombing, the air raid alert was sounded again, as Straight Flush flew over the city. It broadcast a short message which was picked up by Enola Gay. It read: "Cloud cover less than 3/10th at all altitudes. Advice: bomb primary."[138] The all-clear was sounded over Hiroshima again at 07:09.[139]

At 08:09, Tibbets started his bomb run and handed control over to his bombardier, Major Thomas Ferebee.[140] The release at 08:15 (Hiroshima time) went as planned, and the Little Boy containing about 64 kg (141 lb) of uranium-235 took 44.4 seconds to fall from the aircraft flying at about 9,400 meters (31,000 ft) to a detonation height of about 580 meters (1,900 ft) above the city.[141][142] Enola Gay traveled 18.5 km (11.5 mi) before it felt the shock waves from the blast.[143]

Due to crosswind, the bomb missed the aiming point, the Aioi Bridge, by approximately 240 m (800 ft) and detonated directly over Shima Surgical Clinic.[144] It released the equivalent energy of 16 ± 2 kilotons of TNT (66.9 ± 8.4 TJ).[141] The weapon was considered very inefficient, with only 1.7 percent of its material fissioning.[145] The radius of total destruction was about 1.6 kilometres (1 mi), with resulting fires across 11 km2 (4.4 sq mi).[146]

Enola Gay stayed over the target area for two minutes and was 16 kilometres (10 mi) away when the bomb detonated. Only Tibbets, Parsons, and Ferebee knew of the nature of the weapon; the others on the bomber were only told to expect a blinding flash and given black goggles. "It was hard to believe what we saw", Tibbets told reporters, while Parsons said "the whole thing was tremendous and awe-inspiring ... the men aboard with me gasped 'My God'." He and Tibbets compared the shockwave to "a close burst of ack-ack fire".[147]

Events on the ground

People on the ground reported a pika (ピカ)—a brilliant flash of light—followed by a don (ドン)—a loud booming sound.[148] Some 70,000–80,000 people, around 30 percent of the population of Hiroshima at the time, were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm,[149][150] and another 70,000 were injured.[151] It is estimated that as many as 20,000 Japanese military personnel were killed.[152] U.S. surveys estimated that 12 km2 (4.7 sq mi) of the city were destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69 percent of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed and another 6 to 7 percent damaged.[153]

Some of the reinforced concrete buildings in Hiroshima had been very strongly constructed because of the earthquake danger in Japan, and their framework did not collapse even though they were fairly close to the blast center. Since the bomb detonated in the air, the blast was directed more downward than sideways, which was largely responsible for the survival of the Prefectural Industrial Promotional Hall, now commonly known as the Genbaku (A-bomb) dome, which was only 150 m (490 ft) from ground zero (the hypocenter). The ruin was named Hiroshima Peace Memorial and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996 over the objections of the United States and China, which expressed reservations on the grounds that other Asian nations were the ones who suffered the greatest loss of life and property, and a focus on Japan lacked historical perspective.[154] The bombing started intense fires that spread rapidly through timber and paper homes, burning everything in a radius of 2 kilometers (1.2 mi).[155] As in other Japanese cities, the firebreaks proved ineffective.[156]

The air raid warning had been cleared at 07:31, and many people were outside, going about their activities.[157] Eizō Nomura was the closest known survivor, being in the basement of a reinforced concrete building (it remained as the Rest House after the war) only 170 meters (560 ft) from ground zero at the time of the attack.[158][159] He died in 1982, aged 84.[160] Akiko Takakura was among the closest survivors to the hypocenter of the blast. She was in the solidly-built Bank of Hiroshima only 300 meters (980 ft) from ground-zero at the time of the attack.[161]

For decades this "Hiroshima strike" photo was misidentified as the mushroom cloud of the bomb that formed at c. 08:16.[162][163] However, due to its much greater height, the scene was identified by a researcher in March 2016 as the firestorm-cloud that engulfed the city,[163] a fire that reached its peak intensity some three hours after the bomb.[164]

Over 90 percent of the doctors and 93 percent of the nurses in Hiroshima were killed or injured—most had been in the downtown area which received the greatest damage.[165] The hospitals were destroyed or heavily damaged. Only one doctor, Terufumi Sasaki, remained on duty at the Red Cross Hospital.[156] Nonetheless, by early afternoon the police and volunteers had established evacuation centres at hospitals, schools and tram stations, and a morgue was established in the Asano library.[166] Survivors of the blast gathered for medical treatment, but many would die before receiving any help, leaving behind rings of corpses around hospitals.[167]

Most elements of the Japanese Second General Army headquarters were undergoing physical training on the grounds of Hiroshima Castle, barely 820 metres (900 yd) from the hypocenter. The attack killed 3,243 troops on the parade ground.[168] The communications room of Chugoku Military District Headquarters that was responsible for issuing and lifting air raid warnings was located in a semi-basement in the castle. Yoshie Oka, a Hijiyama Girls High School student who had been mobilized to serve as a communications officer, had just sent a message that the alarm had been issued for Hiroshima and neighboring Yamaguchi, when the bomb exploded. She used a special phone to inform Fukuyama Headquarters (some 100 kilometers (62 mi) away) that "Hiroshima has been attacked by a new type of bomb. The city is in a state of near-total destruction."[169]

Since Mayor Senkichi Awaya had been killed while eating breakfast with his son and granddaughter at the mayoral residence, Field Marshal Shunroku Hata, who was only slightly wounded, took over the administration of the city, and coordinated relief efforts. Many of his staff had been killed or fatally wounded, including Lieutenant Colonel Yi U, a prince of the Korean imperial family who was serving as a General Staff Officer.[170][171] Hata's senior surviving staff officer was the wounded Colonel Kumao Imoto, who acted as his chief of staff. Soldiers from the undamaged Hiroshima Ujina Harbor used Shin'yō-class suicide motorboats, intended to repel the American invasion, to collect the wounded and take them down the rivers to the military hospital at Ujina.[170] Trucks and trains brought in relief supplies and evacuated survivors from the city.[172]

Twelve American airmen were imprisoned at the Chugoku Military Police Headquarters, about 400 metres (1,300 ft) from the hypocenter of the blast.[173] Most died instantly, although two were reported to have been executed by their captors, and two prisoners badly injured by the bombing were left next to the Aioi Bridge by the Kempei Tai, where they were stoned to death.[174][175] Eight U.S. prisoners of war killed as part of the medical experiments program at Kyushu University were falsely reported by Japanese authorities as having been killed in the atomic blast as part of an attempted cover up.[176]

Japanese realization of the bombing

Hiroshima before the bombing

Hiroshima after the bombing and subsequent firestorm

The Tokyo control operator of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation noticed that the Hiroshima station had gone off the air. He tried to re-establish his program by using another telephone line, but it too had failed.[177] About 20 minutes later the Tokyo railroad telegraph center realized that the main line telegraph had stopped working just north of Hiroshima. From some small railway stops within 16 km (10 mi) of the city came unofficial and confused reports of a terrible explosion in Hiroshima. All these reports were transmitted to the headquarters of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff.[178]

Military bases repeatedly tried to call the Army Control Station in Hiroshima. The complete silence from that city puzzled the General Staff; they knew that no large enemy raid had occurred and that no sizable store of explosives was in Hiroshima at that time. A young officer was instructed to fly immediately to Hiroshima, to land, survey the damage, and return to Tokyo with reliable information for the staff. It was felt that nothing serious had taken place and that the explosion was just a rumor.[178]

The staff officer went to the airport and took off for the southwest. After flying for about three hours, while still nearly 160 km (100 mi) from Hiroshima, he and his pilot saw a great cloud of smoke from the firestorm created by the bomb. After circling the city to survey the damage they landed south of the city, where the staff officer, after reporting to Tokyo, began to organize relief measures. Tokyo's first indication that the city had been destroyed by a new type of bomb came from President Truman's announcement of the strike, sixteen hours later.[178]