Byzantine Eagle (July-September, 1906)
First Duma]
On July 8, Tsar Alexander III accepted the resignation letter of Premier Sergei Yulyevich Witte for health reasons, this obviously was a blow to Russian democracy, less than a year and the first prime minister had to retire.
Some deputies of the First Duma had proposed or insisted on the need to recall elections to re-evaluate the voting results, after the number of voters had been expanded (by granting the right to vote to women).
However Tsar Alexander III refused these re-elections, the First Duma would continue until the next elections unless other major problems occurred (and the Tsar had to dissolve the Duma).
With this, Deputy Premier Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin became Premier of the First Duma of the Russian Empire, marking the continuation of the democratic reform of the Russian Empire.
Immediately one of the traditions of Russia was established, the Premier Stolypin counted on the ex-Premier Witte as an adviser (Witte had retired but even so Stolypin went with him for advice and support), Witte still having some influence for the public apparatus. -bureaucratic.
Since then, many retired premiers have still had their influence on the governments of their successors, particularly when they have similar ideologies or policies.
Premier Pyotr Stolypin also had the support of Tsar Alexander III and a growing popularity for his oratorical skills, which attracted elements from the left, center and right in the Russian Empire.
In addition to having years of experience within the tsarist administration-bureaucracy, and fulfilling the conditions to be Premier. Stolypin was 44 when he became Premier.
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* [State: Ministries]
* Ministry of the Interior / Internal Affairs: Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin.
* Ministry of the Imperial Court: Vladimir Borisovich Frederiks (Adolf Andreas Voldemar Friedricks / Adolf Andreas Woldemar Freedericksz).
* Ministry of War: Mikhail Dmitriyevich Skobelev.
* Ministry of the Navy: Steppan Osipovich Makarov.
** Deputy Minister: Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovish Romanov.
* Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Mikhail Nikolaevich Girs.
* Ministry of Finance, Trade and Industry:
* Ministry of Public Education, Technology and Culture: Pyotr Mikhailovich von-Kaufman (von-Kaufman-Turkestan).
* Ministry of Justice: Ivan Grigorievich Scheglovitov.
In addition, there were other commissions or sub-divisions within each ministry dedicated to various activities, such as agriculture, the police, the air force (ministry of war), railways (finance), etc.
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* [First Duma: Politics of Stolypin]
While Witte would still be behind him and Tsar Alexander III was present, as well as other elements of the old government, of course Stolypin also had his own views and proposals.
Stolypin proposed a continuous policy of agricultural and industrial economic development, the "Double-headed Eagle" policy.
Stolypin pronounced: "Our eagle, legacy of Byzantium, is a two-headed eagle. Of course, single-headed eagles are also strong and powerful, but by cutting off our Russian eagle one of its heads, you will not turn it into a One-headed eagle, you'll only bleed it to death. "
The two heads defined many parts of the Russian state, east and west, agriculture and industry, tsarism and democracy, etc.
In this aspect of agrarian reforms, Stolypin proposed:
* Reduce some of the civil restrictions that hinder the economic activity of the citizens of Russia.
* Continuous improvement and subsidization of agricultural activity in Russia.
** Expand subsidies and other agro-economic assistance from the state (agronomic consulting, educational activities, maintenance of experimental and exemplary farms, trade in modern equipment and fertilizers).
* Continue the land policy for immigrants after working it for a few years (usually two to six).
* Support for cooperatives and associations of Russian citizens in rural areas (generally dedicated to agriculture and livestock).
* Continue other economic reforms (loans for farmers for the purchase and administration of land for agriculture).
Regarding industrialization, they included public transport programs, urbanization and other developments. In particular Stolypin supported these policies for the continued development of Russian Siberia (from the Urals to the new territories).
With Stolypin's policies, more than 3,000 settlements were founded, supported by Russian agriculture and the transportation of citizens.
Obviously Stolypin had some struggles with these policies, but he was patient and supported Russia's traditional 'comprehensive reform', a reform with years of preparation and planning, to be implemented slowly.
But in his early successes in 1906 and 1908, Stolypin was more successful in his educational policies with Minister Pyotr Mikhailovich von Kaufman.
The construction of public education (primary, secondary and tertiary) continued, the population of female students continued to increase on an equal basis with men, the seminaries began to be more open to non-Orthodox (Jews and other Christians mostly ), there were more subsidies for the ministry and pensions for teachers, laws for political student associations (left and right political) and other measures for the 'self-government' of students, and other measures were normalized.
Institutions for archeology, psychoneurology, pedagogy and other educational institutions were created.
Not everything was positive of course, Stolypin also supported the reform of the laws of martial law and courts of war, to facilitate the execution of terrorists and transport of revolutionaries to labor camps (Katorga).
In addition, Stolypin was accompanied by a nationalist rhetoric and support for authoritarian measures, which accompanied him throughout his government.
In matters of foreign policy, Tsar Alexander III and other elements guided the Russian leadership much more, Stolypin had little interest in intervening in this unless it was purely necessary. Like for example meeting with some dignitaries, but the Premier did not intend to take any active action.
In Stolypin's opinion, the current course was going well, Tsar Alexander III and Witte argued that Russia for the moment was fine by being neutral (no commitment to alliances), avoiding wars (unless necessary) but cooperating for economic development. .
Especially in the young democracy, it was more economically viable to be neutral at this time and when there were other issues to attend to, in addition to the fact that the ministry of foreign affairs itself was divided.
There were pro-French positions, proposals for rapprochement with the United Kingdom or Germany, pro-war positions (mostly against Germany and UK), etc.
Tsar Alexander III preferred to keep all those cliques down and follow the policy of equidistance and cooperation, for this he was being supported by Mikhail Nikolaevich Girs, son of Nikolay de Girs, who previously served the Tsar as minister until his death in 1895.
Mikhail was there for years in his own right, though not as prominent as his father, but he knew how to keep quiet and neutral in the fairest moments.
In the opinion of Premier Stolypin himself, peace was a good friend of Russia.
"After the years of peace, Russia is unrecognizable from its past to our present age.
During the rule of Tsar Alexander II we were still facing the worst aftermath of the Crimean War and now we are here. "
This refers to the decades or years of peace during the Alexandrian period (which was only called that after Tsar Alexander III), only stopped by occasional conflicts such as the Russo-Turkish wars, the Greek intervention, the Russo-Japanese war, the Boxer rebellion and other conflicts with China.
These periods of peace saw the economic, military, political and administrative transformation of Russia.
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[Cyrilization]
On July 23, the first newspaper in the Ossetian language was created, the "Iron Gazet" (Osetinskaya gazeta, Иро́н газе́т, or also, Осетинская газета).
Although this newspaper was in the Ossetian language (the Ossetian people being a people living in the Caucasus), it used the somewhat modified Cyrillic script (the Sjogren-Miller alphabet), since the Ossetian did not have its own alphabet.
The Iron Gazet was not only important for Ossetian journalism and functional styles of the Ossetian language, but also for the development of other language movements in Russia.
The currents of national scriptures based on Cyrillic were obviously gaining more ground in Russia, overtaking Latinization. Now with the Iron Gazet these currents of cyrillization would continue to become more popular.
But where do these currents have their origin?
We can not only find Cyrilization in Russian nationalism or ideas of Russification, but also in the educational and economic-social reforms of the Russian Empire.
While most subjects were taught in local languages, over time the study of Russian history and Russian literature (among other subjects specifically focused on Russia) were taught in the Russian language, language teaching courses were given throughout the course of the year. Empire, secondary and tertiary education gave Russian courses, teachers and university students from all ethno-cultures of the Empire knew Russian, etc.
On the socio-economic issue, the connection between the settlements through infrastructure, and the growth of Russian-speakers by the Empire, simply meant that the Russian and the Cyrillic script spread to a large number of people.
People needed communication methods for various reasons, without reading or writing, a person has no future (or has many problems).
So the Cyrilization of non-alphabet languages, although it had problems, was very popular to allow more fluid communications within the Russian Empire, allowing educational (people of many ethnic or minority cultures going to universities) and economic (bilingual business, advertising) triumph. in Cyrillic, etc).
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[Peace in our times? Nyet!]
It had been almost 4 years since the war between the United States and the German Empire began (beginning on October 7, 1902), under these conditions Tsar Alexander III and Minister Mikhail Nikolaevich Girs offered in July 6 to participate in mediation or regulation of the war on the American continent in the Hague (German Empire).
Germany, the United States and the United Kingdom agreed to participate, due to the presence of all these states in the Caribbean Sea.
It was proposed to continue the Hague peace conventions regarding war limitations, but this ultimately came to nothing, so the matter was limited solely to the Caribbean war.
The United States had proposed the reduction of the military power of all the states of the region, to which the United Kingdom and Germany obviously refused, while Russia remained neutral.
The need to demilitarize the Tehuantepec canal and nearby waters was proposed, but Germany insisted on keeping its military base in Yucatan, and this would obviously pose a problem for the United States and peace.
Russia at least proposed minor modifications to the sea war, but Britain and Germany refused.
The United States and Germany could be willing to close the Haitian conflict, after all General Joseph Auguste Anténor Firmin had unified Hispaniola with the help of the United States Army.
The same with the conflict in Panama, the Darien front was stagnant between Colombian and American troops.
But Mexico was the great disagreement, the United States simply could not allow such a foreign presence in Mexico, the militarization of the Tehuantepec canal under its rivals or the island of Cuba in Mexican-German hands, was a threat to the United States. In addition, the anti-war and anti-imperialist sentiment grew too much due to the futility of the war, with a stagnant advance.
Germany on the other hand simply could not afford to lose in this way, lose Yucatan, stop supporting the Mexican government in Cuba, losing German properties in Tehuantepec and the allies in Latin America would be a severe blow to all German prestige and power. However, his internal situation was also very bad.
For this reason, despite the mediation of the Russian Empire of Alexander III together with Pyotr Stolypin and the British Empire of Albert Victor with Louis Alexander Mountbatten, nothing was achieved.
Kaiser Wilhelm II rejected the peace proposals, and Elihu Root also, no proposal was or would be satisfactory, only war or total defeat remained.
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[Stalin and Kirov]
Sergei Mironovich Kirov (born Kostrikov) was 20 years old, a young man entering politics and administration in 1904 at the age of 18 as a member of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party. He had not yet received his nickname of Kirov (which came in 1912).
"Greetings to all." Sergei Kostrikov greets a factory in Tomsk, speaking with workers and defending the RSDLP cause with fervor and truth.
After this, Kostrikov traveled by public transport to a meeting of the RSDLP, although to be honest the young Kostrikov was somewhat in a hurry to want to go to the theater.
"Hello." Kostrikov exclaims entering, everyone was up in that meeting.
"You can sit down." A man exclaims, which all follow, the visit of that man was unexpected but those who knew him seemed to have enough respect for the man. "It is a pleasure to have you all here, we are going to discuss some party business in Tomsk and surroundings."
"Oh, I've been gathering some of the opinions of the workers." Kostrikov points out after some of the first points, he was not the best manager but he was energetic and talented at other things.
After the early stages of the meeting, Kostrikov meets the man personally, shaking hands. "Kostrikov, Sergei Mironovich Kostrikov."
"Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, some just call me Koba." The man, belonging to the Russian secret services and politics, introduces himself.
In the end Kostrikov missed the theater, but was able to speak extensively with Dzhugashvili, later Sergei Kirov would become one of Dzhugasvhili's favorites in the RSDL.
The RSLDP continued in a period of training and promotion without limits, although it was not yet its time to shine in the Russian government.
Dzhugashvili, Zinoviev and Kamenev led a triumvirate within the Russian collective left, yet in early times, each began to gather their own followers just in case they were going to fight each other.
Dzhugashvili would be able to get the right people like Kostrikov or Dzerzhinsky. Simply because of the will and skill of agent Koba to administrative work and his charisma plus religious studies, which brought him closer to the common worker and peasant of the Russian Empire.
Gaining trust or attracting the right people, because popular movements emerge from two directions, the masses and the great people.
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[International]
July 1, the guerrilla coalition suffers a serious setback against US forces in the Battle of Cananea, Sonora. Due to the defeat the guerrilla forces of the north are retreating a little towards the center of Mexico.
The American victory soon becomes another stalemate for the American advance to the south, the United States general staff understands that it must do something to completely crush the guerrillas or the Mexican front will not stop.
Venustiano Carranza, Emilio Madero, Francisco Villa and Emiliano Zapata survive the conflict.
July 6, failed peace conference for the Haitian-Caribbean conflict.
July 12, the reconstruction policy of the People's Republic of France begins to bear its first fruits for the construction of roads and putting the farms back to work.
Other larger industrial and urban projects have to wait.
July 14, the United States Army executes 300 guerrilla soldiers who were promised amnesty, of course after this the infamy of the United States in the invaded Mexican territory only increases.
The guerrilla Pancho Villa insisted on always calling Americans enemies of the Mexican race after acts like these.
The government of Emperor Maximilian I also condemned these acts from Cuba and southern Mexico (not yet occupied by the United States).
July 17, Irish terrorists assassinate two British officers.
July 18, anti-Maurras protests are crushed by military officers in Egypt, essentially part of the Second French Empire in exile (in Africa).
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On August 4, two important events occur, on the one hand the Bengal famine finally ends, and on the other the German Imperial Navy declares war without restrictions.
First, if we talk about the situation in Bengal, it is a wonder that the famine itself had lasted only two years ... although there were subsequent consequences of course.
Bengal had suffered between 6 and 8 million deaths, some of which the British government at the time denied or attributed to conflicts with the Bengali revolutionaries, who emerged from a similar stage in opposing British colonialism and British capitalism.
Due to the proximity and replacement of crops by tea plantations, in addition to the aforementioned Bengali revolution, there were also at least 5 million deaths in northern India, related to famine and possibly conflict (although the majority were famine).
With the end of the famine however, the partition of Bengal took more prominence as the revolutionary movements, Muslims and Hindus were increasingly united in the north of the Indian subcontinent to oppose the British Empire and the administration of the Raj.
* Caribbean war.
The destruction of San Francisco by an earthquake was quite good for Germany, after all this damaged the war effort of the United States in northern Mexico, which could only be briefly saved with the victory in Cananea. Before continuing to suffer from logistics, financial problems and internal problems.
With this and the home situation in Germany not much better, Kaiser Wilhelm II accepted the proposal of a war without restrictions, especially in the aspect of the use of the German navy (submarines and other ships).
This involved the attack of many commercial ships or even some coastal ports so that the Germans managed to weaken the United States, the Americans and others were able to denounce this because it also meant damage to commercial interests outside the war.
But at the end of the day, it was in the middle of the Great Depression ... While Russia and the United Kingdom took precautions, world trade continued to deteriorate (especially in the North Atlantic), trading raw materials was simply becoming more difficult.
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August 2, the Iberian Union and Italy make a joint treaty so that Iberia can rebuild its own navy, with the purpose of defense and coastal trade of the home of the revolution.
Although of course, Iberia would never be a proper marine power.
August 16, 20,000 injured in Chile after an earthquake in Valparaiso with a magnitude of 8.2.
August 23, guerrilla Felix Diaz defected to join Victoriano Huerta and the United States after considering the American offer for a time.
Despite this 'victory' for the United States, in reality the troops suffer a serious defeat in southern Mexico, the Republican party continues to lose popularity in several parts of the United States except Midwestern (thanks to La Follete and Ford).
September 11, the term Satyagraha is coined, used by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi for non-violent resistance movements in the Cape Colony.
September 12, President Elihu Root begins to promote modernization measures and "American values" (capitalism, Christianity, democracy and behaviors of the United States) towards Hispaniola.
This helps to fortify and plant Hispaniola for the use of the island by the United States against future enemies in the Caribbean, specifically now, Germany.
September 18, a typhoon and a tsunami kill 20,000 people in Hong Kong, the British Empire.
September 30, the education of Marxism and scientific socialism (Marx, Engels and some others), begins to be very prominent in the Portuguese and Catalan Republics of the Iberian Union, even more than the rest.
On the same day, the People's Republic of France begins programs to care for the orphans of the French civil war.
Some call it caring, and others (generally enemies of the PRF) call it indoctrinating. Although we can also say that it is both, and all states do to some extent.
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* [Federative Socialist Republic of Italy]
4th of September.
"It's been so long since I've been home." The soldier proclaims with some joy, approaching walking along the road towards the commune of Dovia di Predappio. After years of service, Benito Mussolini was returning home.
"Father, mother, hello!" Benito calls coming home, welcomed by his family (mother and father, as well as siblings). After this, the family was eating.
"How was the army?" Alessandro asks calmly, pouring himself some alcohol while the younger siblings were more curious.
"I was assigned to the 10th regiment of the Venetian Socialist Republic, in Verona. I have some papers that the officers gave me about my service." Benito, the eldest son of the family, responds by passing some of these documents to his father and mother.
"So? How are things at the factory?" Benito asks his father curiously, the mother and sisters were washing while the men were sitting.
"There is some improvement. Much better than living oppressed by the industrialists." Alessandro responds from his opinion. "Some administrators recommend that I give up alcohol, but they are not the most annoying. Still however there are some ... pro-church, making trouble."
"Alessandro!" The mother calls, the situation was somewhat tense due to religious opinions still divided in the family.
"It's the truth!" The father of the family yells in response. Before turning once more to his eldest son.
Benito shrugs "Many have no idea what is happening here, they make news without understanding. And those who live here, complain or praise." Benito mentions with some difficulty. As an officer, he had been able to obtain some newspapers from abroad.
"Makes sense. Have you seen the syndicalists?" Alessandro asks curiously.
"What is going on with them?". Benito exclaims.
Alessandro puts a lot of alcohol in his mouth before speaking. "They are the only ones who complain here! They don't stop talking about unions and cooperatives, and other rubbish like that. I am in favor of socialism, but while our brave men, like you or the president, are practicing revolutionary ideas, they they don't stop thinking about utopias. "
"Recommendations for good conduct and disciplinary work, more than two years of service." The director reads carefully.
"Yes." Benito Mussolini responds to this.
"Can I ask why?". The director exclaims.
"After two years of service, I wasn't quite sure what I wanted to do with my life. I'm still not quite sure in fact." Mussolini indicates calmly.
"... Well, we are about to finish the school year, you can be a substitute teacher. But after that you need to get a degree to teach." The director explains to the young applicant.
"Understood sir." Mussolini responds calmly.
The young Mussolini was unemployed for a short time, although after his time as a substitute he did not know what he was going to do. Benito Mussolini was between continuing his work as a teacher, returning to the army, and joining the party.
"Mussolini, get out of there!" A man yells from outside Benito Mussolini's home.
"What do you want?!" Mussolini responds angrily.
"I am a father and a syndicalist, concerned about what you are teaching my children." The annoyed father exclaims.
"The what? I'm a substitute teacher." Mussolini mentions.
"You have been rude and have not stopped attacking our syndicates." The annoyed father responds as Benito went downstairs to meet the man, neither of them backed down after that.
Benito responds. "As for the rudeness ... perhaps it is true, but I prefer to say that I do not underestimate the intelligence of my students."
"We have legitimate complaints, people like you, the maximalists, are dogmatic. You have no qualms about indoctrinating children or using verbal violence." The annoyed father proclaims.
"Isn't it the local syndicates who have been opposing the government's measures to develop our country? People like you, the reformists, have been opposing the building of socialism." Benito declares, locally the discussion grew more and more heated, attracting the attention of many.
"You have increasingly resorted to authoritarianism, our revolution is based on the principles of collectivism and federalism. Not on the persecution of priests and authoritarianism" The father insists.
"What are you doing defending priests? The church was always a enemy of the people and friend of the capital. The revolution was violent, socialist and it was lead by the maximalists, perhaps I am dogmatic, but at least it was successful, for that I can defend it, the reformists have nothing. For something we had decades of a kingdom of Italy full of reformists, and we revolutionaries only need a few years to destroy it. " Benito proudly holds. "Accept it or be in the wrong side of history!"
A fight started.
Mussolini left his cell after a few hours, working things out with the local police, he had nothing but small injuries. The former soldier and the unionist father received only a few small warnings and fines.
Outside some unionists were protesting some of the measures of the local juries and the government, the confinement of some legitimate dangers, priests and 'authoritarian' measures (like the use of force of the goverment, the secret services activities, or the goverment mandate over fabrics and land). These people (syndicalists, reformists and anarchists) called for more syndicalism-unions, cooperativism and market reforms.
"I am enormously disappointed with what I have seen from non-revolutionary syndicalists. They are not pragmatists, they have not properly studied Marx, Engels, historical and dialectical materialism." Benito Mussolini wrote angrily, his first document of his under the pseudonym True Heretic (Vero Eretico).
After November, Benito Mussolini formally joined Constantino Lazzari's Italian Communist Party and rejoined the military ranks.
"There is a threat of left communism towards the party, a threat to the construction of socialism."
- Benito Mussolini.