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Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment

Volume 420, Issue 3, 11 January 1999, Pages 392-401

A technique of direct tension measurement of a strung fine wire

Author links open overlay panelKLangVVassilakopoulos

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https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9002(98)01184-XGet rights and content

Abstract

We present a new technique of direct measurement of wire tensions in wire chambers. A specially designed circuit plucks the wire using the Lorentz force and measures the frequency of damped transverse oscillations of the wire. The technique avoids the usual time-consuming necessity of tuning circuit parameter to a resonance. It allows a fast and convenient determination of tensions and is straightforward to implement.

Introduction

Many techniques of measuring wire tensions in wire chambers are extensively covered in the literature 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16. Here, we are presenting a new scheme of performing this task inspired by the principle of generating sound by vibrating strings in an electric guitar. In our novel circuit the plucking is accomplished by forcing a voltage pulse through a wire placed in a static magnetic field. A plucked wire strung in a chamber undergoes damped transverse oscillations with frequencies given by the formula:f=n2LTρ,where f is the frequency of oscillations, L is the wire length, ρ is the linear density of the wire, T is the tension force stretching the wire, and n is the order of the harmonic. Frequency of these transverse oscillations can be directly measured by analyzing a waveform of the induced Faraday current.

The main difference between the method presented here and all other techniques known to us is that our circuit offers direct measurement of vibrational frequency (up to a calibration factor) without a usual necessity of tuning the instrument to the resonant frequency of a wire. Once a wire is placed in a magnetic field and is connected to the circuit, the period of oscillations – thus the tension – is determined automatically. This new technique allows the tension measurements to be performed significantly faster than using other methods. We have conducted many tests validating this technique using wires with lengths ranging from 5 to 100 cm. Our measurements were done in various conditions and show an excellent agreement between the expected and measured oscillation frequencies. In the following sections, we first briefly review the basic principles of the most commonly used setups for measuring wire tensions, and then describe in detail our technique and performed tests.

Figures

A conceptual diagram of the circuit for direct measurements of wire tensions.

A block diagram of the designed circuit to directly measure wire tensions.

A detailed schematics of the designed circuit to directly measure wire tensions.

An oscilloscope trace showing the shape of the wire plucking excitation pulse.

The oscilloscope trace of the induced signal from the oscillating wire. The signal is not exactly damped sinusoidal due to short range of the magnetic field.

The oscilloscope trace of the signal from the Cycle Gate Generator. The gate is spanning exactly 8 periods (5th through the 12th) is measured to detect the number of zero-crossings.

Show all figures

Section snippets

A brief general overview

The development of various wire chambers since early 1970s and the task of manufacturing reliable long-lived high-quality instruments motivated many different approaches to measuring tensions of wires. Over the years several types of methods have been developed differing in employed physics principles. They range from the most obvious and commonly used electromagnetic and electrostatic techniques to optical measurements. In this section we give a brief overview of various methods.

Circuit concept

The circuit which we designed is conceptually very simple, as illustrated in Fig. 1. It consists of an impulse current source, followed by a signal amplifier and a frequency detector. An optional acoustic amplifier was added to further facilitate the measurements. The principles behind the circuit are the Lorentz force to excite the wire mechanically and the Faraday law to induce a signal on the wire vibrating in a magnetic field. We have primarily tested it using a straw tube wire chamber, but

Initial circuit implementation

The translation of this simple idea into a practical device required following all the basic low-noise circuit practices including a solid single point ground and careful shielding. In the initial trials we used a square voltage excitation pulse. The frequency of oscillations behaved erratically as a function of the tension of the wire. The source of this problem was found to be the interference of two out-of-phase oscillations induced on the wire. One was caused by the leading edge of the

Detailed circuit description

The circuit, shown in block diagrams in Fig. 2, can be divided into several main functional blocks: Free Running Pulse Generator, Pulse Shaper, Controlled Voltage Source, Analog Switch, Difference Amplifier, Clipping Amplifier, Low Pass Filter, Zero Crossing Detector, Binary Counter, Cycle Gate Generator, NAND gate, Decade Counter, LCD, Free Running Crystal Clock, and Scope Synch. Below we discuss the functions of each part and refer to the detailed circuit schematics shown in Fig. 3.

The Free

Test results

To determine the functioning of the circuit many measurements were conducted with a variety of circuit parameters and wire conditions. In most tests we used a gold-plated tungsten wire with a 20 μm diameter and a measured linear density of ρ=61 μg/cm [18]. For our tests the wire was secured at different tensions by soldering it to two vertically spaced fixed points. The wire was first soldered at the top fixed point, then a weight was attached to it and after the wire stabilized it was soldered

Summary

We have designed and tested a new circuit to measure tensions of wires in wire chambers. Our simple technique of plucking the wire electromagnetically and analyzing the frequency of the induced signal is fast, robust and easy to implement. It offers a direct method of determining the tensions without a time-consuming necessity to tune the circuit to a resonance. Our tests showed better than 1% agreement between the applied and measured tension values. This work was supported in part by the U.S.

References (18)

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I. D'Antone

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N.J. Shenhav

Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A

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R.T. Jones

Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A

(1988)

D. Carlsmith

Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A

(1995)

K.B. Burns

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(1973)

T. Regan

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There are more references available in the full text version of this article.

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• Aim to use the following fonts in your illustrations: Arial, Courier, Times New Roman, Symbol, or use fonts that look similar.

• Number the illustrations according to their sequence in the text.

• Use a logical naming convention for your artwork files.

• Provide captions to illustrations separately.

• Size the illustrations close to the desired dimensions of the published version.

• Submit each illustration as a separate file.

• Ensure that color images are accessible to all, including those with impaired color vision.

A detailed guide on electronic artwork is available.

You are urged to visit this site; some excerpts from the detailed information are given here.

Formats

If your electronic artwork is created in a Microsoft Office application (Word, PowerPoint, Excel) then please supply 'as is' in the native document format.

Regardless of the application used other than Microsoft Office, when your electronic artwork is finalized, please 'Save as' or convert the images to one of the following formats (note the resolution requirements for line drawings, halftones, and line/halftone combinations given below):

EPS (or PDF): Vector drawings, embed all used fonts.

TIFF (or JPEG): Color or grayscale photographs (halftones), keep to a minimum of 300 dpi.

TIFF (or JPEG): Bitmapped (pure black & white pixels) line drawings, keep to a minimum of 1000 dpi.

TIFF (or JPEG): Combinations bitmapped line/half-tone (color or grayscale), keep to a minimum of 500 dpi.

Please do not:

• Supply files that are optimized for screen use (e.g., GIF, BMP, PICT, WPG); these typically have a low number of pixels and limited set of colors;

• Supply files that are too low in resolution;

• Submit graphics that are disproportionately large for the content.

Color artwork

Please make sure that artwork files are in an acceptable format (TIFF (or JPEG), EPS (or PDF) or MS Office files) and with the correct resolution. If, together with your accepted article, you submit usable color figures then Elsevier will ensure, at no additional charge, that these figures will appear in color online (e.g., ScienceDirect and other sites). Further information on the preparation of electronic artwork.

Illustration services

Elsevier's Author Services offers Illustration Services to authors preparing to submit a manuscript but concerned about the quality of the images accompanying their article. Elsevier's expert illustrators can produce scientific, technical and medical-style images, as well as a full range of charts, tables and graphs. Image 'polishing' is also available, where our illustrators take your image(s) and improve them to a professional standard. Please visit the website to find out more.

Figure captions

Ensure that each illustration has a caption. Supply captions separately, not attached to the figure. A caption should comprise a brief title (not on the figure itself) and a description of the illustration. Keep text in the illustrations themselves to a minimum but explain all symbols and abbreviations used.

Tables

Please submit tables as editable text and not as images. Tables can be placed either next to the relevant text in the article, or on separate page(s) at the end. Number tables consecutively in accordance with their appearance in the text and place any table notes below the table body. Be sparing in the use of tables and ensure that the data presented in them do not duplicate results described elsewhere in the article. Please avoid using vertical rules and shading in table cells.

References

Citation in text

Please ensure that every reference cited in the text is also present in the reference list (and vice versa). Any references cited in the abstract must be given in full. Unpublished results and personal communications are not recommended in the reference list, but may be mentioned in the text. If these references are included in the reference list they should follow the standard reference style of the journal and should include a substitution of the publication date with either 'Unpublished results' or 'Personal communication'. Citation of a reference as 'in press' implies that the item has been accepted for publication.

Reference links

Increased discoverability of research and high quality peer review are ensured by online links to the sources cited. In order to allow us to create links to abstracting and indexing services, such as Scopus, CrossRef and PubMed, please ensure that data provided in the references are correct. Please note that incorrect surnames, journal/book titles, publication year and pagination may prevent link creation. When copying references, please be careful as they may already contain errors. Use of the DOI is highly encouraged.

A DOI is guaranteed never to change, so you can use it as a permanent link to any electronic article. An example of a citation using DOI for an article not yet in an issue is: VanDecar J.C., Russo R.M., James D.E., Ambeh W.B., Franke M. (2003). Aseismic continuation of the Lesser Antilles slab beneath northeastern Venezuela. Journal of Geophysical Research, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JB000884. Please note the format of such citations should be in the same style as all other references in the paper.

Web references

As a minimum, the full URL should be given and the date when the reference was last accessed. Any further information, if known (DOI, author names, dates, reference to a source publication, etc.), should also be given. Web references can be listed separately (e.g., after the reference list) under a different heading if desired, or can be included in the reference list.

Data references

This journal encourages you to cite underlying or relevant datasets in your manuscript by citing them in your text and including a data reference in your Reference List. Data references should include the following elements: author name(s), dataset title, data repository, version (where available), year, and global persistent identifier. Add [dataset] immediately before the reference so we can properly identify it as a data reference. The [dataset] identifier will not appear in your published article.

References in a special issue

Please ensure that the words 'this issue' are added to any references in the list (and any citations in the text) to other articles in the same Special Issue.

Reference management software

Most Elsevier journals have their reference template available in many of the most popular reference management software products. These include all products that support Citation Style Language styles, such as Mendeley. Using citation plug-ins from these products, authors only need to select the appropriate journal template when preparing their article, after which citations and bibliographies will be automatically formatted in the journal's style. If no template is yet available for this journal, please follow the format of the sample references and citations as shown in this Guide. If you use reference management software, please ensure that you remove all field codes before submitting the electronic manuscript. More information on how to remove field codes from different reference management software.

Reference style

Text: Indicate references by superscript numbers in the text. The actual authors can be referred to, but the reference number(s) must always be given.

List: Number the references in the list in the order in which they appear in the text.

Examples:

Reference to a journal publication:

1. Van der Geer J, Hanraads JAJ, Lupton RA. The art of writing a scientific article. J Sci Commun 2010;163:51–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.Sc.2010.00372.

Reference to a journal publication with an article number:

2. Van der Geer J, Hanraads JAJ, Lupton RA. The art of writing a scientific article. Heliyon. 2018;19:e00205. https://doi.org/j.heliyon.2018.e00205.

Reference to a book:

3. Strunk Jr W, White EB. The elements of style. 4th ed. New York: Longman; 2000.

Reference to a chapter in an edited book:

4. Mettam GR, Adams LB. How to prepare an electronic version of your article. In: Jones BS, Smith RZ, editors. Introduction to the electronic age, New York: E-Publishing Inc; 2009, p. 281–304.

Reference to a website:

5. Cancer Research UK. Cancer statistics reports for the UK, http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/aboutcancer/statistics/cancerstatsreport/; 2003 [accessed 13 March 2003].

Reference to a dataset:

[dataset] 6. Oguro M, Imahiro S, Saito S, Nakashizuka T. Mortality data for Japanese oak wilt disease and surrounding forest compositions, Mendeley Data, v1; 2015. https://doi.org/10.17632/xwj98nb39r.1.

Note shortened form for last page number. e.g., 51–9, and that for more than 6 authors the first 6 should be listed followed by 'et al.' For further details you are referred to 'Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts submitted to Biomedical Journals' (J Am Med Assoc 1997;277:927–34)(see also Samples of Formatted References).

Journal abbreviations source

Journal names should be abbreviated according to the List of Title Word Abbreviations.

Video

Elsevier accepts video material and animation sequences to support and enhance your scientific research. Authors who have video or animation files that they wish to submit with their article are strongly encouraged to include links to these within the body of the article. This can be done in the same way as a figure or table by referring to the video or animation content and noting in the body text where it should be placed. All submitted files should be properly labeled so that they directly relate to the video file's content. In order to ensure that your video or animation material is directly usable, please provide the file in one of our recommended file formats with a preferred maximum size of 150 MB per file, 1 GB in total. Video and animation files supplied will be published online in the electronic version of your article in Elsevier Web products, including ScienceDirect. Please supply 'stills' with your files: you can choose any frame from the video or animation or make a separate image. These will be used instead of standard icons and will personalize the link to your video data. For more detailed instructions please visit our video instruction pages. Note: since video and animation cannot be embedded in the print version of the journal, please provide text for both the electronic and the print version for the portions of the article that refer to this content.

Supplementary material

Supplementary material such as applications, images and sound clips, can be published with your article to enhance it. Submitted supplementary items are published exactly as they are received (Excel or PowerPoint files will appear as such online). Please submit your material together with the article and supply a concise, descriptive caption for each supplementary file. If you wish to make changes to supplementary material during any stage of the process, please make sure to provide an updated file. Do not annotate any corrections on a previous version. Please switch off the 'Track Changes' option in Microsoft Office files as these will appear in the published version.

Proofs

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If you do not wish to use the PDF annotations function, you may list the corrections (including replies to the Query Form) and return them to Elsevier in an e-mail. Please list your corrections quoting line number. If, for any reason, this is not possible, then mark the corrections and any other comments (including replies to the Query Form) on a printout of your proof and scan the pages and return via e-mail. Please use this proof only for checking the typesetting, editing, completeness and correctness of the text, tables and figures. Significant changes to the article as accepted for publication will only be considered at this stage with permission from the Editor. We will do everything possible to get your article published quickly and accurately. It is important to ensure that all corrections are sent back to us in one communication: please check carefully before replying, as inclusion of any subsequent corrections cannot be guaranteed. Proofreading is solely your responsibility.

Offprints

The corresponding author will, at no cost, receive a customized Share Link providing 50 days free access to the final published version of the article on ScienceDirect. The Share Link can be used for sharing the article via any communication channel, including email and social media. For an extra charge, paper offprints can be ordered via the offprint order form which is sent once the article is accepted for publication. Both corresponding and co-authors may order offprints at any time via Elsevier's Author Services. Corresponding authors who have published their article gold open access do not receive a Share Link as their final published version of the article is available open access on ScienceDirect and can be shared through the article DOI link.

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Vacunas

Volume 21, Issue 1, January–June 2020, Pages 69-72

Preguntas y respuestas

Vacunas contra el coronavirusCoronavirus vaccines

Author links open overlay panelL.UrbiztondoaG.Miradac

Cite

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vacun.2020.04.002Get rights and content

Section snippets

Cada día aparecen noticias que anuncian la aparición casi inminente de vacunas que solucionarán la pandemia por SARS-CoV-2. ¿Cuándo se podrá disponer de vacunas?

Es difícil aventurar cuándo se podrá disponer de vacunas contra la infección por coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. La aparición de la COVID-19 ha hecho pensar en las vacunas como la mejor manera de poder prevenirla, como ocurre habitualmente cuando aparece una nueva enfermedad infecciosa. En los medios de comunicación generalistas aparecen continuamente noticias que prevén que habrá vacunas en pocos meses; sin embargo, en la prensa científica los artículos sobre este tema son relativamente escasos.

¿Se pueden coordinar esfuerzos para conseguir avanzar con más rapidez en la obtención de vacunas contra la COVID-19?

La Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), una alianza fundada en Davos en 2017 por los gobiernos de Noruega e India, la Fundación Bill y Melinda Gates, el Wellcome Trust y el Foro Económico Mundial con la misión de acelerar el desarrollo de vacunas contra enfermedades infecciosas emergentes y permitir el acceso equitativo a estas vacunas para las personas durante los brotes, está trabajando con las autoridades sanitarias mundiales y los fabricantes de vacunas para apoyar el

¿Qué tecnologías se están utilizando en la investigación de las vacunas contra la COVID-19?

La CEPI está estudiando desde el mes de febrero el panorama de candidatos a la vacuna COVID-19 mediante el uso de todo tipo de fuentes que incluyen los productos candidatos a vacunas en evaluación de la lista autorizada y continuamente actualizada por la OMS, pero además la información procedente de convocatorias, comunicaciones directas con desarrolladores de vacunas, bases de datos de ensayos clínicos y financiadores, comunicados de prensa y literatura disponible públicamente.

A fecha de 8 de

El tiempo que se necesita habitualmente para hacer una vacuna es muy largo, de más de 5 o 10 años. ¿Se pueden acortar los plazos?

La necesidad de desarrollar rápidamente una vacuna contra el SARS-CoV-2 llega en un momento en que los conocimientos básicos de genómica y de biología estructural pueden hacer posible una nueva era en el desarrollo de vacunas. En la última década se ha pedido a la comunidad científica y a la industria de las vacunas que respondan urgentemente a las epidemias de gripe H1N1, Ébola, Zika y ahora SARS-CoV-2. Aunque la vacuna monovalente contra la gripe H1N1 no estuvo disponible antes de que la

¿Es seguro acortar los plazos?

Si tomamos como ejemplo la primera vacuna que ha iniciado la investigación clínica, se puede afirmar, a partir de la experiencia con vacunas para oncología, que la plataforma basada en ARNm es segura en humanos, pero no que esta vacuna COVID-19 lo sea. El National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), que colabora con Moderna en el desarrollo de la vacuna, argumenta que el riesgo de retrasar el avance de las vacunas es mucho mayor que el riesgo de causar enfermedades en

¿Cómo es posible que en tan poco tiempo ya se disponga de prototipos de vacuna contra el SARS-CoV-2?

La gripe nos ha aportado experiencia científica en la posibilidad de aparición de pandemias gripales imprevistas en el tiempo. Por ello los laboratorios desarrolladores de vacunas han trabajado intensamente y en diferentes líneas de producción de vacunas con el fin de anticiparse a estas posibles situaciones. Lo mismo ha sucedido con otros virus potencialmente pandémicos. Los laboratorios han estado trabajando intensamente con moléculas candidatas a vacunas contra estos virus. Además, la

¿Qué se está investigando en España?

El Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB) del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) tiene en marcha dos proyectos. Sonia Zúñiga, del equipo de Luis Enjuanes e Isabel Sola, está desarrollando una vacuna de virus completos. Esta vacuna podría proporcionar una respuesta más amplia que la de las vacuas de subunidades. Otro equipo del CSIC, que lidera el científico Mariano Esteban, trabaja en una vacuna de subunidades y quiere crear vectores virales modificados de Vaccinia que

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