1 SKIP-WORD COUNT
Buddhism
The Four Noble Truths
Main article: Four Noble Truths
The "Four Noble Truths" constitute the most essential and fundamental Buddhist teaching, and as such they appear numerous times throughout the oldest Buddhist texts, the Pali Canon. They are considered to have arisen from the buddhic enlightenment of Prince Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, and are considered in Buddhism as the deepest spiritual insight, not [merely] as a philosophical theory. As Buddha observed in the Samyutta Nikaya: "These Four Noble Truths, monks, are real, infallible, and not otherwise. Therefore they are called the Noble Truths."[2]
The Four Noble Truths (Catvāry Āryasatyāni) are as follows:
The truth of the existence of suffering (Dukkha);
The truth of the existence of suffering for a radical cause (Trishna);
The truth of the possibility of eliminating suffering (Nirvana);
The truth of the existence of a way to eliminate suffering (Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo).
Doctrine of the Two Truths
The Two Truths Doctrine (in Buddhism) distinguishes two levels of truth in Buddhist discourse, a "relative" or commonsense truth (Tibetan: kun-rdzob bden-pa; Sanskrit: samvrtisatya) and an "absolute" or spiritual truth ( Tibetan: don-dam bden-pa; Sanskrit: paramarthasatya). Stated differently, the Two Truths Doctrine holds that truth exists in both conventional and ultimate forms, and that both forms are co-existing. Other schools, such as Dzogchen, hold that the Two Truths Doctrine is ultimately resolved as not a lived experience and is no different. Doctrine is an especially important element in Buddhism and was first expressed in modern and complete form by Nagarjuna, who based it on the Kaccayagotta Sutta.
Christianity
What is Truth? — Pilate argued with Jesus[3] (Nikolai Ge's work)
What is Truth? — stylized inscription at the entrance to the Temple of the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona (work by Antoni Gaudí)
John 14: 6 [4] reports that Jesus Christ, in one of his teachings, said: "I am the Way, and the Truth, and the Life. No one comes to the Father, except through Me.". Truth is, therefore, from the Judeo-Christian point of view, considered a Perfect Attribute of God.
Christian truth is based on History, Divine Revelation, as well as the Testimony of the Holy Bible, and all these elements are crucial to Christian belief and faith. Christian philosopher William Lane Craig notes that the Bible normally uses the words true or non-philosophical truth meanings to indicate such qualities as faithfulness, moral rectitude, and reality. However, we sometimes use the word in the philosophical sense of truthfulness.[5]
Christian Science, (a confession that claims to be Christian but is not recognized as a Christian organization by most Christian churches today), says that Truth is God Himself.[6]
Jesus and the Truth
The gospels, which relate the life of Jesus Christ, announce, in the Messiah's own words, on more than one occasion, His own personal declaration of Truth:
"(21) Jesus declared to her, 'Woman, believe me, the hour is at hand when neither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem will you worship the Father. (22) You worship what you do not know; we worship what we know, because salvation is from the Jews.(23) But the hour is coming, and indeed has come, when true worshipers will worship the Father in Spirit and in Truth; God is Spirit, and it is necessary that his worshipers worship him in Spirit and in Truth.' (25) The woman said to Jesus: 'I know that the Messiah is coming. When He comes, He will enlighten us about everything.' (26) Jesus assured him, 'I who speak to you am the Messiah.' "
"(6) Jesus assured them, 'I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life. No one comes to the Father except through me. (7) If you had known me, you would have known my Father also; and from now on you have known him and seen him.' "
"(33) Then Pilate entered the Praetorium again, called Jesus and asked him, 'Are you the King of the Jews?' (34) Jesus answered him: 'Is this your question, or did others tell you about me?' (35) Pilate replied, "Am I a Jew? Your own people and the chief priests handed you over to me. What have you done?" (36) Jesus said to him, "My Kingdom is not of this world. If it were, my servants would fight to prevent the Jews from arresting me. But now, my Kingdom is not from here." (37) However, Pilate asked him: 'So, you are a king?' Jesus answered him: "You rightly say that I am a king. For this reason I was born and for this I came into the world: to testify to the Truth. All who belong to the Truth listen to my voice." (38) Then Pilate questioned Jesus: 'What is truth?' "
biblical inerrancy
Prehistoric art refers to the artistic productions of peoples who lived before the invention of writing, which happened around 3500 BC. It is worth mentioning, however, that the use of this term is treacherous because it involves transferring a contemporary Western concept to a remote past, with different cultural references.
Among the archaeological finds that are well accepted as artistic manifestations are cave paintings and sculptures carved in different materials, such as mammoth ivory. They are closely related to religious, political and social aspects of prehistoric societies, offering material for the creation of hypotheses about their functioning.[1]
As for Brazil, there are many records of prehistoric art throughout the national territory, but the Brazilian Amazon region suffered, for decades, from the lack of interest in its rock art. But research has been increasing over the years and has rare findings - unique records never before found in the country and even in South America.
Art in the Paleolithic
Wear patterns suggest they may have formed a necklace 82,000 years ago.
Collection of perforated and stained Nassarius Snail shells.
The Paleolithic is the first periodic phase of history, beginning about 2.5 million years ago and ending around 10,000 BC. Ancestral ornaments found by researchers date from this time. The oldest example comes from Morocco and is a collection of perforated and stained shells of the Nassarius snail. Wear patterns suggest they may have formed a necklace 82,000 years ago.
The 130,000-year-old eagle claws found in Krapina, Croatia have been seen by some anthropologists as an example of Neanderthal art. Some have suggested that Neanderthals may have copied this behavior from Homo sapiens. But David W. Frayer disputed this view, saying that Homo sapiens was not in the region where the claws were discovered even after 100,000 years.[2]
Paleolithic art[3][4][5][6] emerges as a vehicle through which humanity frees itself and asserts itself, as the first way to transmit concepts with the intention of lasting. Some analyzes consider that it allows the association of artistic activities with subsistence activities. Carrier of complex meanings[7] for those who conceived it, these graphic presentation systems could function as an expression of the communication systems of societies, representing an action that carries within itself a discourse.
The sculpture mixes features of cats and humans
Lion Man: oldest representation of something that does not physically exist
Some researchers relate the caves in which art records associated with the Paleolithic period were found to special places through which people came into contact with the world of spirits through certain forms of shamanism, functioning as a means of communication for varied motivations and a sanctuary par excellence.[8]
The first record of figurative art was found in the cave of Leang Tedongnge,[9] located on the island of Celebes, Indonesia. It shows a boar measuring 136 centimeters long and 54 centimeters high, painted over 45,500 years ago.
The oldest representation of something that does not exist physically, but symbolizes ideas of the supernatural is the Man-Lion[10]. As the name suggests, the 31 cm tall object appears to be the result of a mix between felines and humans. It was carved from mammoth ivory 40,000 years ago and researchers found it in Germany. This example approximates art by functioning as an element to demonstrate the identification between a clan and an animal.
There are still other archaeological discoveries in Europe, especially in southern France, northern Spain and southwestern Germany. They include more than 200 caves with paintings and sculptures that are also among the first examples of figurative art. There, fauna, flora, geometric elements and occasional human figures are represented, with variations from centimeters to meters in length.
Records were found in uranium mines that resembled evil spirits, as if to signal that they were dangerous. Other vestiges of paintings approach the moment of Creation, which could be shown to children and would work to ensure the permanence of the cosmogonies of that place and historical period.
The theory is that this type of sculpture represents fertility.
Venus of Willendorf, found in 1908 in Austria
There are a total of 29 sites or sets of archaeological sites inscribed on the Unesco World Heritage list[11] that house records of Paleolithic art. Art dating from this period can be done in three ways: indirectly, by relating the painted panels and the layers of occupation, through the identification of materials in the soil such as ochres, painted plaques, paint drippings and bonfires; through Carbon-14 (C14) dating; by thermolumin
Art in the Modern Age (c. 1350-1850)
Main article: Art in the Modern Age
The Modern Age begins with the Renaissance, a period of great cultural splendor in Europe. Religion gave way to a scientific conception of man and the universe, in the system of humanism. The new geographical discoveries led European civilization to expand to all continents, and through the invention of the press, culture became universal. His art was basically inspired by classical Greco-Roman art and the scientific observation of nature.
Among its exponents are Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Bramante, Donatello, Leonardo da Vinci, Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Raphael, Dürer, Palestrina and Lassus. Its continuation produced Mannerism, with the emergence of greater individualism and a sense of drama and extravagance, proliferating in numerous regional schools. Also important at this stage was the dispute between Protestants and Counter-Reformist Catholics, with repercussions on sacred art. Shakespeare, Cervantes, Camões, Andrea Palladio, Parmigianino, Monteverdi, El Greco and Michelangelo are some of its most famous representatives. In the Baroque period, national States were strengthened, giving rise to absolutism. As a reflection of this, art becomes sumptuous and grandiloquent, favoring accentuated contrasts, a sense of drama and movement. Large schools were established in several countries, such as Italy, France, Spain and Germany. Key names from the period are Góngora, Vieira, Molière, Donne, Bernini, Bach, Handel, Lully, Pozzo, Borromini, Caravaggio, Rubens, Poussin, Lorrain, Rembrandt, Ribera, Zurbarán, Velázquez, among a multitude of others.[31]
Its sequel was Rococo, which emerged from the mid-eighteenth century, with lighter and more elegant forms, favoring decorativism, aristocratic sophistication and individual sensitivity. At the same time, an Enlightenment current was established, preaching the primacy of reason and a return to nature. Important examples were Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Jean-Antoine Houdon, Antoine Watteau, Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough. At the end of the century, two opposing currents emerged: romanticism and neoclassicism, which would dominate until the mid-nineteenth century, sometimes in eclectic syntheses, as in the work of Goethe.
Romanticism emphasized the artist's individual experience, with passionate, visionary and dramatic works, while neoclassicism recovered the balanced ideal of classicism and imposed a moralizing and political social function on art. In the first current, Victor Hugo, Byron, Eugène Delacroix, Francisco de Goya, Frédéric Chopin, Ludwig van Beethoven, William Turner, Richard Wagner, William Blake, Albert Bierstadt and Caspar David Friedrich can be highlighted, and, in the second, Jacques-Louis David, Mozart, Haydn and Antonio Canova.[32]
The School of Athens by Raphael, Renaissance
The School of Athens by Raphael, Renaissance
Bernini's Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, baroque
Bernini's Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, baroque
Ottobeuren Abbey, Rococo
Ottobeuren Abbey, Rococo
Abbey in Carvalhal, by Caspar David Friedrich, romantic
Abbey in Carvalhal, by Caspar David Friedrich, romantic
Perseus with the Head of Medusa, by Canova, neoclassical
Perseus with the Head of Medusa, by Canova, neoclassical
Warrior and helpers, bronze from the Benin Empire.
Warrior and helpers, bronze from the Benin Empire.
Contemporary art (c. 1850-present)
Main articles: Modern art and Contemporary art
Between the middle of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the foundations of contemporary society were laid, marked in the political field by the end of absolutism and the establishment of democratic governments. In the economic field, this phase was marked by the Industrial Revolution and the consolidation of capitalism, which had responses in left-wing doctrines such as Marxism, and in the class struggle. In art, what typifies the period is the multiplication of greatly differentiated currents. By the end of the 19th century, there were, for example, realism, impressionism, symbolism and post-impressionism.[33]
The 20th century was characterized by a strong emphasis on questioning the old foundations of art, proposing to create a new paradigm of culture and society and overthrow everything that was tradition. Until the middle of the century, the avant-garde were grouped under the label of modernists, and since then they have followed each other with increasing speed, reaching today a state of total fragmentation of styles and aesthetics, which coexist, dialogue, influence each other and face each other. There has also emerged a tendency to solicit public participation in the creative process, and to incorporate a variety of previously unknown or excluded themes, styles, practices and technologies into the artistic domain. Among the numerous trends of the 20th century, we can mention: art nouveau, fauvism, pointillism, abstractionism,
art historiography
German archaeologist and art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann, considered the father of art history.
Art historiography is the science that analyzes the study of art history from a methodological point of view, that is, the way in which the historian conducts the study of art, the tools and disciplines that can be used for this study. The art world has always carried, in parallel, a component of self-reflection. Vitruvius wrote the oldest surviving treatise on architecture, De Architectura. His description of the architectural forms of Greco-Roman antiquity influenced the Renaissance, and in turn is an important documentary source for information on Greek and Roman painting and sculpture.[35] Giorgio Vasari, in Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori (1542-1550), was one of the predecessors of art historiography, chronicling the main artists of his time, placing special emphasis on the progression and development of art . However, these writings, usually chronicles, inventories, biographies or other more or less literary writings, lacked the historical perspective and scientific rigor necessary to be considered art historiography.[36]
Johann Joachim Winckelmann is considered the father of art history, creating a scientific methodology for classifying the arts and basing art history on an aesthetic theory of Neoplatonic influence: beauty is the result of a materialization of the idea. A great admirer of Greek culture, he postulated that, in ancient Greece, there was perfect beauty, generating a myth about the perfection of classical beauty that still determines the perfection of art today. In Reflection on the Imitation of Greek Works of Art (1755), he asserted that the Greeks reached a state of complete perfection in the imitation of nature, and thus we can now only imitate the Greeks. Likewise, he related art to the stages of human life (childhood, adulthood, old age), establishing an evolution of art in three styles: archaic, classical and hellenistic.[37]
During the 19th century, the new discipline sought a more practical and rigorous formulation, especially since the emergence of positivism. However, this task was addressed by different methodologies that brought a wide variety of historiographic trends: romanticism imposed a historicist and revivalist vision of the past, rescuing and putting into fashion artistic styles that had been devalued by Winckelmannian neoclassicism; thus, we see it in the work of Ruskin, Viollet-le-Duc, Goethe, Schlegel, Wackenroder, among others. Instead, the work of authors such as Karl Friedrich von Rumohr, Jacob Burckhardt and Hippolyte Taine was the first serious attempt to formulate an art history based on scientific criteria, relying on critical analyzes of historiographical sources. On the other hand, Giovanni Morelli introduced the concept of the connoisseur, the specialist in art, who analyzes it based on both his knowledge and his intuition.[38]
The first highly relevant historiographical school was formalism, which defended the study of art from the point of view of style, applying an evolutionist methodology that defended, for art, an autonomy far from any philosophical consideration, rejecting romantic aesthetics and the Hegelian ideal, and approaching neo-Kantianism. Its first theorist was Heinrich Wölfflin, considered the father of modern art history. He applied scientific criteria to art, such as psychological study or the comparative method: he defined styles by their inherent structural differences, as he argued in his work Fundamental Concepts of the History of Art (1915). Wölfflin did not attach importance to the biographies of the artists, defending, on the other hand, the idea of nationality, artistic schools and national styles. Wölfflin's theories were continued by the so-called Vienna School, with authors such as Alois Riegl, Max Dvořák, Hans Sedlmayr and Otto Pächt.[39]
Already in the 20th century, the historiography of art has continued to be divided between multiple trends, from authors still framed in formalism (Roger Fry, Henri Focillon), passing through the sociological (Friedrich Antal, Arnold Hauser, Pierre Francastel, Giulio Carlo Argan) or psychological schools (Rudolf Arnheim, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler), to individual and synthesized perspectives such as those of Adolf Goldschmidt or Adolfo Venturi. One of the most recognized schools has been that of iconology, which centers its studies on the symbology and meaning of the artistic work. Through the study of images, emblems, allegories and other elements of visual significance, it intends to clarify the message that the artist intended to convey in his work, studying the image from mythological, religious or historical postulates, or from any semantic nature present in any artistic style. . The main theorists
art historiography
German archaeologist and art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann, considered the father of art history.
Art historiography is the science that analyzes the study of art history from a methodological point of view, that is, the way in which the historian conducts the study of art, the tools and disciplines that can be used for this study. The art world has always carried, in parallel, a component of self-reflection. Vitruvius wrote the oldest surviving treatise on architecture, De Architectura. His description of the architectural forms of Greco-Roman antiquity influenced the Renaissance, and in turn is an important documentary source for information on Greek and Roman painting and sculpture.[35] Giorgio Vasari, in Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori (1542-1550), was one of the predecessors of art historiography, chronicling the main artists of his time, placing special emphasis on the progression and development of art . However, these writings, usually chronicles, inventories, biographies or other more or less literary writings, lacked the historical perspective and scientific rigor necessary to be considered art historiography.[36]
Johann Joachim Winckelmann is considered the father of art history, creating a scientific methodology for classifying the arts and basing art history on an aesthetic theory of Neoplatonic influence: beauty is the result of a materialization of the idea. A great admirer of Greek culture, he postulated that, in ancient Greece, there was perfect beauty, generating a myth about the perfection of classical beauty that still determines the perfection of art today. In Reflection on the Imitation of Greek Works of Art (1755), he asserted that the Greeks reached a state of complete perfection in the imitation of nature, and thus we can now only imitate the Greeks. Likewise, he related art to the stages of human life (childhood, adulthood, old age), establishing an evolution of art in three styles: archaic, classical and hellenistic.[37]
During the 19th century, the new discipline sought a more practical and rigorous formulation, especially since the emergence of positivism. However, this task was addressed by different methodologies that brought a wide variety of historiographic trends: romanticism imposed a historicist and revivalist vision of the past, rescuing and putting into fashion artistic styles that had been devalued by Winckelmannian neoclassicism; thus, we see it in the work of Ruskin, Viollet-le-Duc, Goethe, Schlegel, Wackenroder, among others. Instead, the work of authors such as Karl Friedrich von Rumohr, Jacob Burckhardt and Hippolyte Taine was the first serious attempt to formulate an art history based on scientific criteria, relying on critical analyzes of historiographical sources. On the other hand, Giovanni Morelli introduced the concept of the connoisseur, the specialist in art, who analyzes it based on both his knowledge and his intuition.[38]
The first highly relevant historiographical school was formalism, which defended the study of art from the point of view of style, applying an evolutionist methodology that defended, for art, an autonomy far from any philosophical consideration, rejecting romantic aesthetics and the Hegelian ideal, and approaching neo-Kantianism. Its first theorist was Heinrich Wölfflin, considered the father of modern art history. He applied scientific criteria to art, such as psychological study or the comparative method: he defined styles by their inherent structural differences, as he argued in his work Fundamental Concepts of the History of Art (1915). Wölfflin did not attach importance to the biographies of the artists, defending, on the other hand, the idea of nationality, artistic schools and national styles. Wölfflin's theories were continued by the so-called Vienna School, with authors such as Alois Riegl, Max Dvořák, Hans Sedlmayr and Otto Pächt.[39]
Already in the 20th century, the historiography of art has continued to be divided between multiple trends, from authors still framed in formalism (Roger Fry, Henri Focillon), passing through the sociological (Friedrich Antal, Arnold Hauser, Pierre Francastel, Giulio Carlo Argan) or psychological schools (Rudolf Arnheim, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler), to individual and synthesized perspectives such as those of Adolf Goldschmidt or Adolfo Venturi. One of the most recognized schools has been that of iconology, which centers its studies on the symbology and meaning of the artistic work. Through the study of images, emblems, allegories and other elements of visual significance, it intends to clarify the message that the artist intended to convey in his work, studying the image from mythological, religious or historical postulates, or from any semantic nature present in any artistic style. . The main theorists
art historiography
German archaeologist and art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann, considered the father of art history.
Art historiography is the science that analyzes the study of art history from a methodological point of view, that is, the way in which the historian conducts the study of art, the tools and disciplines that can be used for this study. The art world has always carried, in parallel, a component of self-reflection. Vitruvius wrote the oldest surviving treatise on architecture, De Architectura. His description of the architectural forms of Greco-Roman antiquity influenced the Renaissance, and in turn is an important documentary source for information on Greek and Roman painting and sculpture.[35] Giorgio Vasari, in Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori (1542-1550), was one of the predecessors of art historiography, chronicling the main artists of his time, placing special emphasis on the progression and development of art . However, these writings, usually chronicles, inventories, biographies or other more or less literary writings, lacked the historical perspective and scientific rigor necessary to be considered art historiography.[36]
Johann Joachim Winckelmann is considered the father of art history, creating a scientific methodology for classifying the arts and basing art history on an aesthetic theory of Neoplatonic influence: beauty is the result of a materialization of the idea. A great admirer of Greek culture, he postulated that, in ancient Greece, there was perfect beauty, generating a myth about the perfection of classical beauty that still determines the perfection of art today. In Reflection on the Imitation of Greek Works of Art (1755), he asserted that the Greeks reached a state of complete perfection in the imitation of nature, and thus we can now only imitate the Greeks. Likewise, he related art to the stages of human life (childhood, adulthood, old age), establishing an evolution of art in three styles: archaic, classical and hellenistic.[37]
During the 19th century, the new discipline sought a more practical and rigorous formulation, especially since the emergence of positivism. However, this task was addressed by different methodologies that brought a wide variety of historiographic trends: romanticism imposed a historicist and revivalist vision of the past, rescuing and putting into fashion artistic styles that had been devalued by Winckelmannian neoclassicism; thus, we see it in the work of Ruskin, Viollet-le-Duc, Goethe, Schlegel, Wackenroder, among others. Instead, the work of authors such as Karl Friedrich von Rumohr, Jacob Burckhardt and Hippolyte Taine was the first serious attempt to formulate an art history based on scientific criteria, relying on critical analyzes of historiographical sources. On the other hand, Giovanni Morelli introduced the concept of the connoisseur, the specialist in art, who analyzes it based on both his knowledge and his intuition.[38]
The first highly relevant historiographical school was formalism, which defended the study of art from the point of view of style, applying an evolutionist methodology that defended, for art, an autonomy far from any philosophical consideration, rejecting romantic aesthetics and the Hegelian ideal, and approaching neo-Kantianism. Its first theorist was Heinrich Wölfflin, considered the father of modern art history. He applied scientific criteria to art, such as psychological study or the comparative method: he defined styles by their inherent structural differences, as he argued in his work Fundamental Concepts of the History of Art (1915). Wölfflin did not attach importance to the biographies of the artists, defending, on the other hand, the idea of nationality, artistic schools and national styles. Wölfflin's theories were continued by the so-called Vienna School, with authors such as Alois Riegl, Max Dvořák, Hans Sedlmayr and Otto Pächt.[39]
Already in the 20th century, the historiography of art has continued to be divided between multiple trends, from authors still framed in formalism (Roger Fry, Henri Focillon), passing through the sociological (Friedrich Antal, Arnold Hauser, Pierre Francastel, Giulio Carlo Argan) or psychological schools (Rudolf Arnheim, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler), to individual and synthesized perspectives such as those of Adolf Goldschmidt or Adolfo Venturi. One of the most recognized schools has been that of iconology, which centers its studies on the symbology and meaning of the artistic work. Through the study of images, emblems, allegories and other elements of visual significance, it intends to clarify the message that the artist intended to convey in his work, studying the image from mythological, religious or historical postulates, or from any semantic nature present in any artistic style. . The main theorists
art historiography
German archaeologist and art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann, considered the father of art history.
Art historiography is the science that analyzes the study of art history from a methodological point of view, that is, the way in which the historian conducts the study of art, the tools and disciplines that can be used for this study. The art world has always carried, in parallel, a component of self-reflection. Vitruvius wrote the oldest surviving treatise on architecture, De Architectura. His description of the architectural forms of Greco-Roman antiquity influenced the Renaissance, and in turn is an important documentary source for information on Greek and Roman painting and sculpture.[35] Giorgio Vasari, in Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori (1542-1550), was one of the predecessors of art historiography, chronicling the main artists of his time, placing special emphasis on the progression and development of art . However, these writings, usually chronicles, inventories, biographies or other more or less literary writings, lacked the historical perspective and scientific rigor necessary to be considered art historiography.[36]
Johann Joachim Winckelmann is considered the father of art history, creating a scientific methodology for classifying the arts and basing art history on an aesthetic theory of Neoplatonic influence: beauty is the result of a materialization of the idea. A great admirer of Greek culture, he postulated that, in ancient Greece, there was perfect beauty, generating a myth about the perfection of classical beauty that still determines the perfection of art today. In Reflection on the Imitation of Greek Works of Art (1755), he asserted that the Greeks reached a state of complete perfection in the imitation of nature, and thus we can now only imitate the Greeks. Likewise, he related art to the stages of human life (childhood, adulthood, old age), establishing an evolution of art in three styles: archaic, classical and hellenistic.[37]
During the 19th century, the new discipline sought a more practical and rigorous formulation, especially since the emergence of positivism. However, this task was addressed by different methodologies that brought a wide variety of historiographic trends: romanticism imposed a historicist and revivalist vision of the past, rescuing and putting into fashion artistic styles that had been devalued by Winckelmannian neoclassicism; thus, we see it in the work of Ruskin, Viollet-le-Duc, Goethe, Schlegel, Wackenroder, among others. Instead, the work of authors such as Karl Friedrich von Rumohr, Jacob Burckhardt and Hippolyte Taine was the first serious attempt to formulate an art history based on scientific criteria, relying on critical analyzes of historiographical sources. On the other hand, Giovanni Morelli introduced the concept of the connoisseur, the specialist in art, who analyzes it based on both his knowledge and his intuition.[38]
The first highly relevant historiographical school was formalism, which defended the study of art from the point of view of style, applying an evolutionist methodology that defended, for art, an autonomy far from any philosophical consideration, rejecting romantic aesthetics and the Hegelian ideal, and approaching neo-Kantianism. Its first theorist was Heinrich Wölfflin, considered the father of modern art history. He applied scientific criteria to art, such as psychological study or the comparative method: he defined styles by their inherent structural differences, as he argued in his work Fundamental Concepts of the History of Art (1915). Wölfflin did not attach importance to the biographies of the artists, defending, on the other hand, the idea of nationality, artistic schools and national styles. Wölfflin's theories were continued by the so-called Vienna School, with authors such as Alois Riegl, Max Dvořák, Hans Sedlmayr and Otto Pächt.[39]
Already in the 20th century, the historiography of art has continued to be divided between multiple trends, from authors still framed in formalism (Roger Fry, Henri Focillon), passing through the sociological (Friedrich Antal, Arnold Hauser, Pierre Francastel, Giulio Carlo Argan) or psychological schools (Rudolf Arnheim, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler), to individual and synthesized perspectives such as those of Adolf Goldschmidt or Adolfo Venturi. One of the most recognized schools has been that of iconology, which centers its studies on the symbology and meaning of
the artistic work. Through the study of images, emblems, allegories and other elements of visual significance, it intends to clarify the message that the artist intended to convey in his work, studying the image from mythological, religious or historical postulates, or from any semantic nature present in any artistic style. . The main theorists
art historiography
German archaeologist and art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann, considered the father of art history.
Art historiography is the science that analyzes the study of art history from a methodological point of view, that is, the way in which the historian conducts the study of art, the tools and disciplines that can be used for this study. The art world has always carried, in parallel, a component of self-reflection. Vitruvius wrote the oldest surviving treatise on architecture, De Architectura. His description of the architectural forms of Greco-Roman antiquity influenced the Renaissance, and in turn is an important documentary source for information on Greek and Roman painting and sculpture.[35] Giorgio Vasari, in Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori (1542-1550), was one of the predecessors of art historiography, chronicling the main artists of his time, placing special emphasis on the progression and development of art . However, these writings, usually chronicles, inventories, biographies or other more or less literary writings, lacked the historical perspective and scientific rigor necessary to be considered art historiography.[36]
Johann Joachim Winckelmann is considered the father of art history, creating a scientific methodology for classifying the arts and basing art history on an aesthetic theory of Neoplatonic influence: beauty is the result of a materialization of the idea. A great admirer of Greek culture, he postulated that, in ancient Greece, there was perfect beauty, generating a myth about the perfection of classical beauty that still determines the perfection of art today. In Reflection on the Imitation of Greek Works of Art (1755), he asserted that the Greeks reached a state of complete perfection in the imitation of nature, and thus we can now only imitate the Greeks. Likewise, he related art to the stages of human life (childhood, adulthood, old age), establishing an evolution of art in three styles: archaic, classical and hellenistic.[37]
During the 19th century, the new discipline sought a more practical and rigorous formulation, especially since the emergence of positivism. However, this task was addressed by different methodologies that brought a wide variety of historiographic trends: romanticism imposed a historicist and revivalist vision of the past, rescuing and putting into fashion artistic styles that had been devalued by Winckelmannian neoclassicism; thus, we see it in the work of Ruskin, Viollet-le-Duc, Goethe, Schlegel, Wackenroder, among others. Instead, the work of authors such as Karl Friedrich von Rumohr, Jacob Burckhardt and Hippolyte Taine was the first serious attempt to formulate an art history based on scientific criteria, relying on critical analyzes of historiographical sources. On the other hand, Giovanni Morelli introduced the concept of the connoisseur, the specialist in art, who analyzes it based on both his knowledge and his intuition.[38]
The first highly relevant historiographical school was formalism, which defended the study of art from the point of view of style, applying an evolutionist methodology that defended, for art, an autonomy far from any philosophical consideration, rejecting romantic aesthetics and the Hegelian ideal, and approaching neo-Kantianism. Its first theorist was Heinrich Wölfflin, considered the father of modern art history. He applied scientific criteria to art, such as psychological study or the comparative method: he defined styles by their inherent structural differences, as he argued in his work Fundamental Concepts of the History of Art (1915). Wölfflin did not attach importance to the biographies of the artists, defending, on the other hand, the idea of nationality, artistic schools and national styles. Wölfflin's theories were continued by the so-called Vienna School, with authors such as Alois Riegl, Max Dvořák, Hans Sedlmayr and Otto Pächt.[39]
Already in the 20th century, the historiography of art has continued to be divided between multiple trends, from authors still framed in formalism (Roger Fry, Henri Focillon), passing through the sociological (Friedrich Antal, Arnold Hauser, Pierre Francastel, Giulio Carlo Argan) or psychological schools (Rudolf Arnheim, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler), to individual and synthesized perspectives such as those of Adolf Goldschmidt or Adolfo Venturi. One of the most recognized schools has been that of iconology, which centers its studies on the symbology and meaning of the artistic work. Through the study of images, emblems, allegories and other elements of visual significance, it intends to clarify the message that the artist intended to convey in his work, studying the image from mythological, religious or historical postulates, or from any semantic nature present in any artistic style. . The main theorists
art historiography
German archaeologist and art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann, considered the father of art history.
Art historiography is the science that analyzes the study of art history from a methodological point of view, that is, the way in which the historian conducts the study of art, the tools and disciplines that can be used for this study. The art world has always carried, in parallel, a component of self-reflection. Vitruvius wrote the oldest surviving treatise on architecture, De Architectura. His description of the architectural forms of Greco-Roman antiquity influenced the Renaissance, and in turn is an important documentary source for information on Greek and Roman painting and sculpture.[35] Giorgio Vasari, in Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori (1542-1550), was one of the predecessors of art historiography, chronicling the main artists of his time, placing special emphasis on the progression and development of art . However, these writings, usually chronicles, inventories, biographies or other more or less literary writings, lacked the historical perspective and scientific rigor necessary to be considered art historiography.[36]
Johann Joachim Winckelmann is considered the father of art history, creating a scientific methodology for classifying the arts and basing art history on an aesthetic theory of Neoplatonic influence: beauty is the result of a materialization of the idea. A great admirer of Greek culture, he postulated that, in ancient Greece, there was perfect beauty, generating a myth about the perfection of classical beauty that still determines the perfection of art today. In Reflection on the Imitation of Greek Works of Art (1755), he asserted that the Greeks reached a state of complete perfection in the imitation of nature, and thus we can now only imitate the Greeks. Likewise, he related art to the stages of human life (childhood, adulthood, old age), establishing an evolution of art in three styles: archaic, classical and hellenistic.[37]
During the 19th century, the new discipline sought a more practical and rigorous formulation, especially since the emergence of positivism. However, this task was addressed by different methodologies that brought a wide variety of historiographic trends: romanticism imposed a historicist and revivalist vision of the past, rescuing and putting into fashion artistic styles that had been devalued by Winckelmannian neoclassicism; thus, we see it in the work of Ruskin, Viollet-le-Duc, Goethe, Schlegel, Wackenroder, among others. Instead, the work of authors such as Karl Friedrich von Rumohr, Jacob Burckhardt and Hippolyte Taine was the first serious attempt to formulate an art history based on scientific criteria, relying on critical analyzes of historiographical sources. On the other hand, Giovanni Morelli introduced the concept of the connoisseur, the specialist in art, who analyzes it based on both his knowledge and his intuition.[38]
The first highly relevant historiographical school was formalism, which defended the study of art from the point of view of style, applying an evolutionist methodology that defended, for art, an autonomy far from any philosophical consideration, rejecting romantic aesthetics and the Hegelian ideal, and approaching neo-Kantianism. Its first theorist was Heinrich Wölfflin, considered the father of modern art history. He applied scientific criteria to art, such as psychological study or the comparative method: he defined styles by their inherent structural differences, as he argued in his work Fundamental Concepts of the History of Art (1915). Wölfflin did not attach importance to the biographies of the artists, defending, on the other hand, the idea of nationality, artistic schools and national styles. Wölfflin's theories were continued by the so-called Vienna School, with authors such as Alois Riegl, Max Dvořák, Hans Sedlmayr and Otto Pächt.[39]
Already in the 20th century, the historiography of art has continued to be divided between multiple trends, from authors still framed in formalism (Roger Fry, Henri Focillon), passing through the sociological (Friedrich Antal, Arnold Hauser, Pierre Francastel, Giulio Carlo Argan) or psychological schools (Rudolf Arnheim, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler), to individual and synthesized perspectives such as those of Adolf Goldschmidt or Adolfo Venturi. One of the most recognized schools has been that of iconology, which centers its studies on the symbology and meaning of the artistic work. Through the study of images, emblems, allegories and other elements of visual significance, it intends to clarify the message that the artist intended to convey in his work, studying the image from mythological, religious or historical postulates, or from any semantic nature present in any artistic style. . The main theorists
art historiography
German archaeologist and art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann, considered the father of art history.
Art historiography is the science that analyzes the study of art history from a methodological point of view, that is, the way in which the historian conducts the study of art, the tools and disciplines that can be used for this study. The art world has always carried, in parallel, a component of self-reflection. Vitruvius wrote the oldest surviving treatise on architecture, De Architectura. His description of the architectural forms of Greco-Roman antiquity influenced the Renaissance, and in turn is an important documentary source for information on Greek and Roman painting and sculpture.[35] Giorgio Vasari, in Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori (1542-1550), was one of the predecessors of art historiography, chronicling the main artists of his time, placing special emphasis on the progression and development of art . However, these writings, usually chronicles, inventories, biographies or other more or less literary writings, lacked the historical perspective and scientific rigor necessary to be considered art historiography.[36]
Johann Joachim Winckelmann is considered the father of art history, creating a scientific methodology for classifying the arts and basing art history on an aesthetic theory of Neoplatonic influence: beauty is the result of a materialization of the idea. A great admirer of Greek culture, he postulated that, in ancient Greece, there was perfect beauty, generating a myth about the perfection of classical beauty that still determines the perfection of art today. In Reflection on the Imitation of Greek Works of Art (1755), he asserted that the Greeks reached a state of complete perfection in the imitation of nature, and thus we can now only imitate the Greeks. Likewise, he related art to the stages of human life (childhood, adulthood, old age), establishing an evolution of art in three styles: archaic, classical and hellenistic.[37]
During the 19th century, the new discipline sought a more practical and rigorous formulation, especially since the emergence of positivism. However, this task was addressed by different methodologies that brought a wide variety of historiographic trends: romanticism imposed a historicist and revivalist vision of the past, rescuing and putting into fashion artistic styles that had been devalued by Winckelmannian neoclassicism; thus, we see it in the work of Ruskin, Viollet-le-Duc, Goethe, Schlegel, Wackenroder, among others. Instead, the work of authors such as Karl Friedrich von Rumohr, Jacob Burckhardt and Hippolyte Taine was the first serious attempt to formulate an art history based on scientific criteria, relying on critical analyzes of historiographical sources. On the other hand, Giovanni Morelli introduced the concept of the connoisseur, the specialist in art, who analyzes it based on both his knowledge and his intuition.[38]
The first highly relevant historiographical school was formalism, which defended the study of art from the point of view of style, applying an evolutionist methodology that defended, for art, an autonomy far from any philosophical consideration, rejecting romantic aesthetics and the Hegelian ideal, and approaching neo-Kantianism. Its first theorist was Heinrich Wölfflin, considered the father of modern art history. He applied scientific criteria to art, such as psychological study or the comparative method: he defined styles by their inherent structural differences, as he argued in his work Fundamental Concepts of the History of Art (1915). Wölfflin did not attach importance to the biographies of the artists, defending, on the other hand, the idea of nationality, artistic schools and national styles. Wölfflin's theories were continued by the so-called Vienna School, with authors such as Alois Riegl, Max Dvořák, Hans Sedlmayr and Otto Pächt.[39]
Already in the 20th century, the historiography of art has continued to be divided between multiple trends, from authors still framed in formalism (Roger Fry, Henri Focillon), passing through the sociological (Friedrich Antal, Arnold Hauser, Pierre Francastel, Giulio Carlo Argan) or psychological schools (Rudolf Arnheim, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler), to individual and synthesized perspectives such as those of Adolf Goldschmidt or Adolfo Venturi. One of the most recognized schools has been that of iconology, which centers its studies on the symbology and meaning of the artistic work. Through the study of images, emblems, allegories and other elements of visual significance, it intends to clarify the message that the artist intended to convey in his work, studying the image from mythological, religious or historical postulates, or from any semantic nature present in any artistic style. . The main theorists
art historiography
German archaeologist and art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann, considered the father of art history.
Art historiography is the science that analyzes the study of art history from a methodological point of view, that is, the way in which the historian conducts the study of art, the tools and disciplines that can be used for this study. The art world has always carried, in parallel, a component of self-reflection. Vitruvius wrote the oldest surviving treatise on architecture, De Architectura. His description of the architectural forms of Greco-Roman antiquity influenced the Renaissance, and in turn is an important documentary source for information on Greek and Roman painting and sculpture.[35] Giorgio Vasari, in Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori (1542-1550), was one of the predecessors of art historiography, chronicling the main artists of his time, placing special emphasis on the progression and development of art . However, these writings, usually chronicles, inventories, biographies or other more or less literary writings, lacked the historical perspective and scientific rigor necessary to be considered art historiography.[36]
Johann Joachim Winckelmann is considered the father of art history, creating a scientific methodology for classifying the arts and basing art history on an aesthetic theory of Neoplatonic influence: beauty is the result of a materialization of the idea. A great admirer of Greek culture, he postulated that, in ancient Greece, there was perfect beauty, generating a myth about the perfection of classical beauty that still determines the perfection of art today. In Reflection on the Imitation of Greek Works of Art (1755), he asserted that the Greeks reached a state of complete perfection in the imitation of nature, and thus we can now only imitate the Greeks. Likewise, he related art to the stages of human life (childhood, adulthood, old age), establishing an evolution of art in three styles: archaic, classical and hellenistic.[37]
During the 19th century, the new discipline sought a more practical and rigorous formulation, especially since the emergence of positivism. However, this task was addressed by different methodologies that brought a wide variety of historiographic trends: romanticism imposed a historicist and revivalist vision of the past, rescuing and putting into fashion artistic styles that had been devalued by Winckelmannian neoclassicism; thus, we see it in the work of Ruskin, Viollet-le-Duc, Goethe, Schlegel, Wackenroder, among others. Instead, the work of authors such as Karl Friedrich von Rumohr, Jacob Burckhardt and Hippolyte Taine was the first serious attempt to formulate an art history based on scientific criteria, relying on critical analyzes of historiographical sources. On the other hand, Giovanni Morelli introduced the concept of the connoisseur, the specialist in art, who analyzes it based on both his knowledge and his intuition.[38]
The first highly relevant historiographical school was formalism, which defended the study of art from the point of view of style, applying an evolutionist methodology that defended, for art, an autonomy far from any philosophical consideration, rejecting romantic aesthetics and the Hegelian ideal, and approaching neo-Kantianism. Its first theorist was Heinrich Wölfflin, considered the father of modern art history. He applied scientific criteria to art, such as psychological study or the comparative method: he defined styles by their inherent structural differences, as he argued in his work Fundamental Concepts of the History of Art (1915). Wölfflin did not attach importance to the biographies of the artists, defending, on the other hand, the idea of nationality, artistic schools and national styles. Wölfflin's theories were continued by the so-called Vienna School, with authors such as Alois Riegl, Max Dvořák, Hans Sedlmayr and Otto Pächt.[39]
Already in the 20th century, the historiography of art has continued to be divided between multiple trends, from authors still framed in formalism (Roger Fry, Henri Focillon), passing through the sociological (Friedrich Antal, Arnold Hauser, Pierre Francastel, Giulio Carlo Argan) or psychological schools (Rudolf Arnheim, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler), to individual and synthesized perspectives such as those of Adolf Goldschmidt or Adolfo Venturi. One of the most recognized schools has been that of iconology, which centers its studies on the symbology and meaning of the artistic work. Through the study of images, emblems, allegories and other elements of visual significance, it intends to clarify the message that the artist intended to convey in his work, studying the image from mythological, religious or historical postulates, or from any semantic nature present in any artistic style. . The main theorists
art historiography
German archaeologist and art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann, considered the father of art history.
Art historiography is the science that analyzes the study of art history from a methodological point of view, that is, the way in which the historian conducts the study of art, the tools and disciplines that can be used for this study. The art world has always carried, in parallel, a component of self-reflection. Vitruvius wrote the oldest surviving treatise on architecture, De Architectura. His description of the architectural forms of Greco-Roman antiquity influenced the Renaissance, and in turn is an important documentary source for information on Greek and Roman painting and sculpture.[35] Giorgio Vasari, in Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori (1542-1550), was one of the predecessors of art historiography, chronicling the main artists of his time, placing special emphasis on the progression and development of art . However, these writings, usually chronicles, inventories, biographies or other more or less literary writings, lacked the historical perspective and scientific rigor necessary to be considered art historiography.[36]
Johann Joachim Winckelmann is considered the father of art history, creating a scientific methodology for classifying the arts and basing art history on an aesthetic theory of Neoplatonic influence: beauty is the result of a materialization of the idea. A great admirer of Greek culture, he postulated that, in ancient Greece, there was perfect beauty, generating a myth about the perfection of classical beauty that still determines the perfection of art today. In Reflection on the Imitation of Greek Works of Art (1755), he asserted that the Greeks reached a state of complete perfection in the imitation of nature, and thus we can now only imitate the Greeks. Likewise, he related art to the stages of human life (childhood, adulthood, old age), establishing an evolution of art in three styles: archaic, classical and hellenistic.[37]
During the 19th century, the new discipline sought a more practical and rigorous formulation, especially since the emergence of positivism. However, this task was addressed by different methodologies that brought a wide variety of historiographic trends: romanticism imposed a historicist and revivalist vision of the past, rescuing and putting into fashion artistic styles that had been devalued by Winckelmannian neoclassicism; thus, we see it in the work of Ruskin, Viollet-le-Duc, Goethe, Schlegel, Wackenroder, among others. Instead, the work of authors such as Karl Friedrich von Rumohr, Jacob Burckhardt and Hippolyte Taine was the first serious attempt to formulate an art history based on scientific criteria, relying on critical analyzes of historiographical sources. On the other hand, Giovanni Morelli introduced the concept of the connoisseur, the specialist in art, who analyzes it based on both his knowledge and his intuition.[38]
The first highly relevant historiographical school was formalism, which defended the study of art from the point of view of style, applying an evolutionist methodology that defended, for art, an autonomy far from any philosophical consideration, rejecting romantic aesthetics and the Hegelian ideal, and approaching neo-Kantianism. Its first theorist was Heinrich Wölfflin, considered the father of modern art history. He applied scientific criteria to art, such as psychological study or the comparative method: he defined styles by their inherent structural differences, as he argued in his work Fundamental Concepts of the History of Art (1915). Wölfflin did not attach importance to the biographies of the artists, defending, on the other hand, the idea of nationality, artistic schools and national styles. Wölfflin's theories were continued by the so-called Vienna School, with authors such as Alois Riegl, Max Dvořák, Hans Sedlmayr and Otto Pächt.[39]
Already in the 20th century, the historiography of art has continued to be divided between multiple trends, from authors still framed in formalism (Roger Fry, Henri Focillon), passing through the sociological (Friedrich Antal, Arnold Hauser, Pierre Francastel, Giulio Carlo Argan) or psychological schools (Rudolf Arnheim, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler), to individual and synthesized perspectives such as those of Adolf Goldschmidt or Adolfo Venturi. One of the most recognized schools has been that of iconology, which centers its studies on the symbology and meaning of the artistic work. Through the study of images, emblems, allegories and other elements of visual significance, it intends to clarify the message that the artist intended to convey in his work, studying the image from mythological, religious or historical postulates, or from any semantic nature present in any artistic style. . The main theorists
Buddhism
The Four Noble Truths
Main article: Four Noble Truths
The "Four Noble Truths" constitute the most essential and fundamental Buddhist teaching, and as such they appear numerous times throughout the oldest Buddhist texts, the Pali Canon. They are considered to have arisen from the buddhic enlightenment of Prince Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, and are considered in Buddhism as the deepest spiritual insight, not [merely] as a philosophical theory. As Buddha observed in the Samyutta Nikaya: "These Four Noble Truths, monks, are real, infallible, and not otherwise. Therefore they are called the Noble Truths."[2]
The Four Noble Truths (Catvāry Āryasatyāni) are as follows:
The truth of the existence of suffering (Dukkha);
The truth of the existence of suffering for a radical cause (Trishna);
The truth of the possibility of eliminating suffering (Nirvana);
The truth of the existence of a way to eliminate suffering (Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo).
Doctrine of the Two Truths
The Two Truths Doctrine (in Buddhism) distinguishes two levels of truth in Buddhist discourse, a "relative" or commonsense truth (Tibetan: kun-rdzob bden-pa; Sanskrit: samvrtisatya) and an "absolute" or spiritual truth ( Tibetan: don-dam bden-pa; Sanskrit: paramarthasatya). Stated differently, the Two Truths Doctrine holds that truth exists in both conventional and ultimate forms, and that both forms are co-existing. Other schools, such as Dzogchen, hold that the Two Truths Doctrine is ultimately resolved as not a lived experience and is no different. Doctrine is an especially important element in Buddhism and was first expressed in modern and complete form by Nagarjuna, who based it on the Kaccayagotta Sutta.
Christianity
What is Truth? — Pilate argued with Jesus[3] (Nikolai Ge's work)
What is Truth? — stylized inscription at the entrance to the Temple of the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona (work by Antoni Gaudí)
John 14: 6 [4] reports that Jesus Christ, in one of his teachings, said: "I am the Way, and the Truth, and the Life. No one comes to the Father, except through Me.". Truth is, therefore, from the Judeo-Christian point of view, considered a Perfect Attribute of God.
Christian truth is based on History, Divine Revelation, as well as the Testimony of the Holy Bible, and all these elements are crucial to Christian belief and faith. Christian philosopher William Lane Craig notes that the Bible normally uses the words true or non-philosophical truth meanings to indicate such qualities as faithfulness, moral rectitude, and reality. However, we sometimes use the word in the philosophical sense of truthfulness.[5]
Christian Science, (a confession that claims to be Christian but is not recognized as a Christian organization by most Christian churches today), says that Truth is God Himself.[6]
Jesus and the Truth
The gospels, which relate the life of Jesus Christ, announce, in the Messiah's own words, on more than one occasion, His own personal declaration of Truth:
"(21) Jesus declared to her, 'Woman, believe me, the hour is at hand when neither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem will you worship the Father. (22) You worship what you do not know; we worship what we know, because salvation is from the Jews.(23) But the hour is coming, and indeed has come, when true worshipers will worship the Father in Spirit and in Truth; God is Spirit, and it is necessary that his worshipers worship him in Spirit and in Truth.' (25) The woman said to Jesus: 'I know that the Messiah is coming. When He comes, He will enlighten us about everything.' (26) Jesus assured him, 'I who speak to you am the Messiah.' "
"(6) Jesus assured them, 'I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life. No one comes to the Father except through me. (7) If you had known me, you would have known my Father also; and from now on you have known him and seen him.' "
"(33) Then Pilate entered the Praetorium again, called Jesus and asked him, 'Are you the King of the Jews?' (34) Jesus answered him: 'Is this your question, or did others tell you about me?' (35) Pilate replied, "Am I a Jew? Your own people and the chief priests handed you over to me. What have you done?" (36) Jesus said to him, "My Kingdom is not of this world. If it were, my servants would fight to prevent the Jews from arresting me. But now, my Kingdom is not from here." (37) However, Pilate asked him: 'So, you are a king?' Jesus answered him: "You rightly say that I am a king. For this reason I was born and for this I came into the world: to testify to the Truth. All who belong to the Truth listen to my voice." (38) Then Pilate questioned Jesus: 'What is truth?' "
biblical inerrancy
Prehistoric art refers to the artistic productions of peoples who lived before the invention of writing, which happened around 3500 BC. It is worth mentioning, however, that the use of this term is treacherous because it involves transferring a contemporary Western concept to a remote past, with different cultural references.
Among the archaeological finds that are well accepted as artistic manifestations are cave paintings and sculptures carved in different materials, such as mammoth ivory. They are closely related to religious, political and social aspects of prehistoric societies, offering material for the creation of hypotheses about their functioning.[1]
As for Brazil, there are many records of prehistoric art throughout the national territory, but the Brazilian Amazon region suffered, for decades, from the lack of interest in its rock art. But research has been increasing over the years and has rare findings - unique records never before found in the country and even in South America.
Art in the Paleolithic
Wear patterns suggest they may have formed a necklace 82,000 years ago.
Collection of perforated and stained Nassarius Snail shells.
The Paleolithic is the first periodic phase of history, beginning about 2.5 million years ago and ending around 10,000 BC. Ancestral ornaments found by researchers date from this time. The oldest example comes from Morocco and is a collection of perforated and stained shells of the Nassarius snail. Wear patterns suggest they may have formed a necklace 82,000 years ago.
The 130,000-year-old eagle claws found in Krapina, Croatia have been seen by some anthropologists as an example of Neanderthal art. Some have suggested that Neanderthals may have copied this behavior from Homo sapiens. But David W. Frayer disputed this view, saying that Homo sapiens was not in the region where the claws were discovered even after 100,000 years.[2]
Paleolithic art[3][4][5][6] emerges as a vehicle through which humanity frees itself and asserts itself, as the first way to transmit concepts with the intention of lasting. Some analyzes consider that it allows the association of artistic activities with subsistence activities. Carrier of complex meanings[7] for those who conceived it, these graphic presentation systems could function as an expression of the communication systems of societies, representing an action that carries within itself a discourse.
The sculpture mixes features of cats and humans
Lion Man: oldest representation of something that does not physically exist
Some researchers relate the caves in which art records associated with the Paleolithic period were found to special places through which people came into contact with the world of spirits through certain forms of shamanism, functioning as a means of communication for varied motivations and a sanctuary par excellence.[8]
The first record of figurative art was found in the cave of Leang Tedongnge,[9] located on the island of Celebes, Indonesia. It shows a boar measuring 136 centimeters long and 54 centimeters high, painted over 45,500 years ago.
The oldest representation of something that does not exist physically, but symbolizes ideas of the supernatural is the Man-Lion[10]. As the name suggests, the 31 cm tall object appears to be the result of a mix between felines and humans. It was carved from mammoth ivory 40,000 years ago and researchers found it in Germany. This example approximates art by functioning as an element to demonstrate the identification between a clan and an animal.
There are still other archaeological discoveries in Europe, especially in southern France, northern Spain and southwestern Germany. They include more than 200 caves with paintings and sculptures that are also among the first examples of figurative art. There, fauna, flora, geometric elements and occasional human figures are represented, with variations from centimeters to meters in length.
Records were found in uranium mines that resembled evil spirits, as if to signal that they were dangerous. Other vestiges of paintings approach the moment of Creation, which could be shown to children and would work to ensure the permanence of the cosmogonies of that place and historical period.
The theory is that this type of sculpture represents fertility.
Venus of Willendorf, found in 1908 in Austria
There are a total of 29 sites or sets of archaeological sites inscribed on the Unesco World Heritage list[11] that house records of Paleolithic art. Art dating from this period can be done in three ways: indirectly, by relating the painted panels and the layers of occupation, through the identification of materials in the soil such as ochres, painted plaques, paint drippings and bonfires; through Carbon-14 (C14) dating; by thermolumin
Art in the Modern Age (c. 1350-1850)
Main article: Art in the Modern Age
The Modern Age begins with the Renaissance, a period of great cultural splendor in Europe. Religion gave way to a scientific conception of man and the universe, in the system of humanism. The new geographical discoveries led European civilization to expand to all continents, and through the invention of the press, culture became universal. His art was basically inspired by classical Greco-Roman art and the scientific observation of nature.
Among its exponents are Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Bramante, Donatello, Leonardo da Vinci, Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Raphael, Dürer, Palestrina and Lassus. Its continuation produced Mannerism, with the emergence of greater individualism and a sense of drama and extravagance, proliferating in numerous regional schools. Also important at this stage was the dispute between Protestants and Counter-Reformist Catholics, with repercussions on sacred art. Shakespeare, Cervantes, Camões, Andrea Palladio, Parmigianino, Monteverdi, El Greco and Michelangelo are some of its most famous representatives. In the Baroque period, national States were strengthened, giving rise to absolutism. As a reflection of this, art becomes sumptuous and grandiloquent, favoring accentuated contrasts, a sense of drama and movement. Large schools were established in several countries, such as Italy, France, Spain and Germany. Key names from the period are Góngora, Vieira, Molière, Donne, Bernini, Bach, Handel, Lully, Pozzo, Borromini, Caravaggio, Rubens, Poussin, Lorrain, Rembrandt, Ribera, Zurbarán, Velázquez, among a multitude of others.[31]
